調書をとる／予約する Five, 一時期／支部 I, part 3 & 4

• Part 3. Of the Expence of Public 作品 and Public 会・原則s
  
• Article 1st. Of the Public 作品 and 会・原則s for 容易にするing the 商業 of Society
  
• Article 2d. Of the Expence of the 会・原則s for the Education of 青年
  
• Article 3d. Of the Expence of the 会・原則s for the 指示／教授／教育 of People of all Ages
  
• Part 4. Of the Expence of supporting the Dignity of the 君主
  
• 結論 of the 一時期／支部

Part 3: Of the Expense of Public 作品 and Public 会・原則s

After the public 会・原則s and public 作品 necessary for the defence of the society, and for the 行政 of 司法（官）, both of which have already been について言及するd, the other 作品 and 会・原則s of this 肉親，親類d are 主として those for 容易にするing the 商業 of the society, and those for 促進するing the 指示／教授／教育 of the people. The 会・原則s for 指示／教授／教育 are of two 肉親，親類d: those for the education of 青年, and those for the 指示／教授／教育 of people of all ages. The consideration of the manner in which the expense of those different sorts of public, 作品 and 会・原則s may be most 適切に defrayed will divide this third part of the 現在の 一時期／支部 into three different articles.

Article 1: Of the Public 作品 and 会・原則s for 容易にするing the
商業 of the Society
And, first, of those which are necessary for 容易にするing
商業 in general.

It does not seem necessary that the expense of those public 作品 should be defrayed from that public 歳入, as it is 一般的に called, of which the collection and 使用／適用 is in most countries 割り当てるd to the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする. The greater part of such public 作品 may easily be so managed as to afford a particular 歳入 十分な for defraying their own expense, without bringing any 重荷（を負わせる） upon the general 歳入 of the society.

A 主要道路, a 橋（渡しをする）, a navigable canal, for example, may in most 事例／患者s be both made and 持続するd by a small （死傷者）数 upon the carriages which make use of them: a harbour, by a 穏健な port-義務 upon the tonnage of the shipping which 負担 or 荷を降ろす in it. The coinage, another 会・原則 for 容易にするing 商業, in many countries, not only defrays its own expense, but affords a small 歳入 or seignorage to the 君主. The 地位，任命する-office, another 会・原則 for the same 目的, over and above defraying its own expense, affords in almost all countries a very かなりの 歳入 to the 君主.

When the carriages which pass over a 主要道路 or a 橋（渡しをする）, and the はしけs which sail upon a navigable canal, 支払う／賃金 （死傷者）数 in 割合 to their 負わせる or their tonnage, they 支払う／賃金 for the 維持／整備 of those public 作品 正確に／まさに in 割合 to the wear and 涙／ほころび which they occasion of them. It seems 不十分な possible to invent a more equitable way of 持続するing such 作品. This 税金 or （死傷者）数 too, though it is 前進するd by the 運送／保菌者, is finally paid by the 消費者, to whom it must always be 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金d in the price of the goods. As the expense of carriage, however, is very much 減ずるd by means of such public 作品, the goods, notwithstanding the （死傷者）数 come cheaper to the 消費者 than the; could さもなければ have done; their price not 存在 so much raised by the （死傷者）数 as it is lowered by the cheapness of the carriage. The person who finally 支払う／賃金s this 税金, therefore, 伸び（る）s by the 使用／適用 more than he loses by the 支払い（額） of it. His 支払い（額） is 正確に／まさに in 割合 to his 伸び（る）. It is in reality no more than a part of that 伸び（る） which he is 強いるd to give up ーするために get the 残り／休憩（する）. It seems impossible to imagine a more equitable method of raising a 税金.

When the （死傷者）数 upon carriages of 高級な upon coaches, 地位，任命する-chaises, etc., is made somewhat higher in 割合 to their 負わせる than upon carriages of necessary use, such as carts, waggons, etc., the indolence and vanity of the rich is made to 与える／捧げる in a very 平易な manner to the 救済 of the poor, by （判決などを）下すing cheaper the transportation of 激しい goods to all the different parts of the country.

When high roads, 橋（渡しをする）s, canals, etc., are in this manner made and supported by the 商業 which is carried on by means of them, they can be made only where that 商業 要求するs them, and その結果 where it is proper to make them. Their expenses too, their grandeur and magnificence, must be ふさわしい to what that 商業 can afford to 支払う／賃金. They must be made その結果 as it is proper to make them. A magnificent high road cannot be made through a 砂漠 country where there is little or no 商業, or 単に because it happens to lead to the country 郊外住宅 of the intendant of the 州, or to that of some 広大な／多数の／重要な lord to whom the intendant finds it convenient to make his 法廷，裁判所. A 広大な／多数の／重要な 橋（渡しをする） cannot be thrown over a river at a place where nobody passes, or 単に to embellish the 見解（をとる） from the windows of a 隣人ing palace: things which いつかs happen in countries where 作品 of this 肉親，親類d are carried on by any other 歳入 than that which they themselves are 有能な of affording.

In several different parts of Europe the トン or lock-義務 upon a canal is the 所有物／資産／財産 of 私的な persons, whose 私的な 利益／興味 強いるs them to keep up the canal. If it is not kept in tolerable order, the 航海 やむを得ず 中止するs altogether, and along with it the whole 利益（をあげる） which they can make by the （死傷者）数s. If those （死傷者）数s were put under the 管理／経営 of commissioners, who had themselves no 利益／興味 in them, they might be いっそう少なく attentive to the 維持／整備 of the 作品 which produced them. The canal of Languedoc cost the King of フラン and the 州 上向きs of thirteen millions of livres, which (at twenty-eight livres the 示す of silver, the value of French money in the end of the last century) 量d to 上向きs of nine hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs 英貨の／純銀の. When that 広大な／多数の／重要な work was finished, the most likely method, it was 設立する, of keeping it in constant 修理 was to make a 現在の of the （死傷者）数s to Riquet the engineer, who planned and 行為／行うd the work. Those （死傷者）数s 構成する at 現在の a very large 広い地所 to the different 支店s of the family of that gentleman, who have, therefore, a 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益／興味 to keep the work in constant 修理. But had those （死傷者）数s been put under the 管理／経営 of commissioners, who had no such 利益／興味, they might perhaps have been dissipated in ornamental and unnecessary expenses, while the most 必須の parts of the work were 許すd to go to 廃虚.

The （死傷者）数s for the 維持／整備 of a high road cannot with any safety be made the 所有物／資産／財産 of 私的な persons. A high road, though 完全に neglected, does not become altogether impassable, though a canal does. The proprietors of the （死傷者）数s upon a high road, therefore, might neglect altogether the 修理 of the road, and yet continue to 徴収する very nearly the same （死傷者）数s. It is proper, therefore, that the （死傷者）数s for the 維持／整備 of such a work should be put under the 管理／経営 of commissioners or trustees.

In 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, the 乱用s which the trustees have committed in the 管理／経営 of those （死傷者）数s have in many 事例／患者s been very 正確に，正当に complained of. At many turnpikes, it has been said, the money 徴収するd is more than 二塁打 of what is necessary for 遂行する／発効させるing, in the completest manner, the work which is often 遂行する／発効させるd in very slovenly manner, and いつかs not 遂行する／発効させるd at all. The system of 修理ing the high roads by （死傷者）数s of this 肉親，親類d, it must be 観察するd, is not of very long standing. We should not wonder, therefore, if it has not yet been brought to that degree of perfection of which it seems 有能な. If mean and 妥当でない persons are frequently 任命するd trustees, and if proper 法廷，裁判所s of 査察 and account have not yet been 設立するd for controlling their 行為／行う, and for 減ずるing the （死傷者）数s to what is barely 十分な for 遂行する／発効させるing the work to be done by them, the recency of the 会・原則 both accounts and わびるs for those defects, of which, by the 知恵 of 議会, the greater part may in 予定 time be 徐々に 治療（薬）d.

The money 徴収するd at the different turnpikes in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain is supposed to 越える so much what is necessary for 修理ing the roads, that the 貯金, which, with proper economy, might be made from it, have been considered, even by some 大臣s, as a very 広大な／多数の／重要な 資源 which might at some time or another be 適用するd to the exigencies of the 明言する／公表する. 政府, it has been said, by taking the 管理／経営 of the turnpikes into its own 手渡すs, and by 雇うing the 兵士s, who would work for a very small 新規加入 to their 支払う／賃金, could keep the roads in good order at a much いっそう少なく expense than it can be done by trustees, who have no other workmen to 雇う but such as derive their whole subsistence from their 給料. A 広大な／多数の／重要な 歳入, half a million perhaps,* it has been pretended, might in this manner be 伸び（る）d without laying any new 重荷（を負わせる） upon the people; and the turnpike roads might be made to 与える／捧げる to the general expense of the 明言する／公表する, in the same manner as the 地位，任命する office does at 現在の. * Since publishing the two first 版s of this 調書をとる／予約する, I have got good 推論する／理由s to believe that all the turnpike （死傷者）数s 徴収するd in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain do not produce a 逮捕する 歳入 that 量s to half a million; a sum which, under the 管理／経営 of 政府, would not be 十分な to keep in 修理 five of the 主要な／長／主犯 roads in the kingdom.

That a かなりの 歳入 might be 伸び（る）d in this manner I have no 疑問, though probably not 近づく so much as the projectors of this 計画（する） have supposed. The 計画（する） itself, however, seems liable to several very important 反対s.

First, if the （死傷者）数s which are 徴収するd at the turnpikes should ever be considered as one of the 資源s for 供給（する）ing the exigencies of the 明言する／公表する, they would certainly be augmented as those exigencies were supposed to 要求する. によれば the 政策 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, therefore, they would probably be augmented very 急速な／放蕩な. The 施設 with which a 広大な／多数の／重要な 歳入 could be drawn from them would probably encourage 行政 to recur very frequently to this 資源. Though it may, perhaps, be more than doubtful whether half a million could by any economy be saved out of the 現在の （死傷者）数s, it can 不十分な be 疑問d but that a million might be saved out of them if they were 二塁打d: and perhaps two millions if they were ３倍になるd.* This 広大な／多数の／重要な 歳入, too, might be 徴収するd without the 任命 of a 選び出す／独身 new officer to collect and receive it. But the turnpike （死傷者）数s 存在 continually augmented in this manner, instead of 容易にするing the inland 商業 of the country as at 現在の, would soon become a very 広大な／多数の／重要な incumbrance upon it. The expense of 輸送（する）ing all 激しい goods from one part of the country to another would soon be so much 増加するd, the market for all such goods, その結果, would soon be so much 狭くするd, that their 生産／産物 would be in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 discouraged, and the most important 支店s of the 国内の 産業 of the country 絶滅するd altogether.

* I have now good 推論する／理由s to believe that all these conjectural sums are by much too large.

Secondly, a 税金 upon carriages in 割合 to their 負わせる, though a very equal 税金 when 適用するd to the 単独の 目的 of 修理ing the roads, is a very unequal one when 適用するd to any other 目的, or to 供給（する） the ありふれた exigencies of the 明言する／公表する. When it is 適用するd to the 単独の 目的 above について言及するd, each carriage is supposed to 支払う／賃金 正確に／まさに for the wear and 涙／ほころび which that carriage occasions of the roads. But when it is 適用するd to any other 目的, each carriage is supposed to 支払う／賃金 for more than that wear and 涙／ほころび, and 与える／捧げるs to the 供給（する） of some other exigency of the 明言する／公表する. But as the turnpike （死傷者）数 raises the price of goods in 割合 to their 負わせる, and not to their value, it is 主として paid by the 消費者s of coarse and bulky, not by those of precious and light, 商品／必需品s. Whatever exigency of the 明言する／公表する therefore this 税金 might be ーするつもりであるd to 供給（する）, that exigency would be 主として 供給（する）d at the expense of the poor, not the rich; at the expense of those who are least able to 供給（する） it, not of those who are most able.

Thirdly, if 政府 should at any time neglect the 賠償 of the high roads, it would be still more difficult than it is at 現在の to 強要する the proper 使用／適用 of any part of the turnpike （死傷者）数s. A large 歳入 might thus be 徴収するd upon the people without any part of it 存在 適用するd to the only 目的 to which a 歳入 徴収するd in this manner ought ever to be 適用するd. If the meanness and poverty of the trustees of turnpike roads （判決などを）下す it いつかs difficult at 現在の to 強いる them to 修理 their wrong, their wealth and greatness would （判決などを）下す it ten times more so in the 事例／患者 which is here supposed.

In フラン, the 基金s 運命にあるd for the 賠償 of high roads are under the 即座の direction of the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする. Those 基金s consist partly in a 確かな number of days' 労働 which the country people are in most parts of Europe 強いるd to give to the 賠償 of the 主要道路s, and partly in such a 部分 of the general 歳入 of the 明言する／公表する as the king chooses to spare from his other expenses.

By the 古代の 法律 of フラン, 同様に as by that of most other parts of Europe, the 労働 of the country people was under the direction of a 地元の or 地方の magistracy, which had no 即座の dependency upon the king's 会議. But by the 現在の practice both the 労働 of the people, and whatever other 基金 the king may choose to 割り当てる for the 賠償 of the high roads in any particular 州 or generality, are 完全に under the 管理／経営 of the intendant; an officer who is 任命するd and 除去するd by the king's 会議, and who receives his orders from it, and is in constant correspondence with it. In the 進歩 of 先制政治 the 当局 of the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする 徐々に 吸収するs that of every other 力／強力にする in the 明言する／公表する, and assumes to itself the 管理／経営 of every 支店 of 歳入 which is 運命にあるd for any public 目的. In フラン, however, the 広大な／多数の／重要な 地位，任命する-roads, the roads which make the communication between the 主要な／長／主犯 towns of the kingdom, are in general kept in good order, and in some 州s are even a good 取引，協定 superior to the greater part of the turnpike roads of England. But what we call the cross-roads, that is, the far greater part of the roads in the country, are 完全に neglected, and are in many places 絶対 impassable for any 激しい carriage. In some places it is even dangerous to travel on horseback, and mules are the only conveyances which can 安全に be 信用d. The proud 大臣 of an ostentatious 法廷，裁判所 may frequently take 楽しみ in 遂行する／発効させるing a work of splendour and magnificence, such as a 広大な／多数の／重要な 主要道路, which is frequently seen by the 主要な／長／主犯 nobility, whose 賞賛s not only flatter his vanity, but even 与える／捧げる to support his 利益／興味 at 法廷，裁判所. But to 遂行する／発効させる a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of little 作品, in which nothing that can be done can make any 広大な／多数の／重要な 外見, or excite the smallest degree of 賞賛 in any traveller, and which, in short, have nothing to recommend them but their extreme 公共事業（料金）／有用性, is a 商売／仕事 which appears in every 尊敬（する）・点 too mean and paltry to 長所 the attention of so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 治安判事. Under such an 行政, therefore, such 作品 are almost always 完全に neglected.

In 中国, and in several other 政府s of Asia, the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金s itself both with the 賠償 of the high roads and with the 維持／整備 of the navigable canals. In the 指示／教授／教育s which are given to the 知事 of each 州, those 反対するs, it is said, are 絶えず recommended to him, and the judgment which the 法廷，裁判所 forms of his 行為／行う is very much 規制するd by the attention which he appears to have paid to this part of his 指示／教授／教育s. This 支店 of public police accordingly is said to be very much …に出席するd to in all those countries, but 特に in 中国, where the high roads, and still more the navigable canals, it is pretended, 越える very much everything of the same 肉親，親類d which is known in Europe. The accounts of those 作品, however, which have been transmitted to Europe, have 一般に been drawn up by weak and wondering travellers; frequently by stupid and lying missionaries. If they had been 診察するd by more intelligent 注目する，もくろむs, and if the accounts of them had been 報告（する）／憶測d by more faithful 証言，証人／目撃するs, they would not, perhaps, appear to be so wonderful. The account which Bernier gives of some 作品 of this 肉親，親類d in Indostan 落ちるs very much short of what had been 報告（する）／憶測d of them by other travellers, more 性質の／したい気がして to the marvellous than he was. It may too, perhaps, be in those countries, as in フラン, where the 広大な／多数の／重要な roads, the 広大な／多数の／重要な communications which are likely to be the 支配するs of conversation at the 法廷，裁判所 and in the 資本／首都, are …に出席するd to, and all the 残り／休憩（する） neglected. In 中国, besides, in Indostan, and in several other 政府s of Asia, the 歳入 of the 君主 arises almost altogether from a land 税金 or land rent, which rises or 落ちるs with the rise and 落ちる of the 年次の produce of the land. The 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益／興味 of the 君主, therefore, his 歳入, is in such countries やむを得ず and すぐに connected with the cultivation of the land, with the greatness of its produce, and with the value of its produce. But ーするために （判決などを）下す that produce both as 広大な／多数の／重要な and as 価値のある as possible, it is necessary to procure to it as 広範囲にわたる a market as possible, and その結果 to 設立する the freest, the easiest, and the least expensive communication between all the different parts of the country; which can be done only by means of the best roads and the best navigable canals. But the 歳入 of the 君主 does not, in any part of Europe, arise 主として from a land 税金 or land rent. In all the 広大な／多数の／重要な kingdoms of Europe, perhaps, the greater part of it may 最終的に depend upon the produce of the land: but that dependency is neither so 即座の, nor so evident. In Europe, therefore, the 君主 does not feel himself so 直接／まっすぐに called upon to 促進する the 増加する, both in 量 and value, of the produce of the land, or, by 持続するing good roads and canals, to 供給する the most 広範囲にわたる market for that produce. Though it should be true, therefore, what I apprehend is not a little doubtful, that in some parts of Asia this department of the public police is very 適切に managed by the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする, there is not the least probability that, during the 現在の 明言する／公表する of things, it could be tolerably managed by that 力／強力にする in any part of Europe.

Even those public 作品 which are of such a nature that they cannot afford any 歳入 for 持続するing themselves, but of which the conveniency is nearly 限定するd to some particular place or 地区, are always better 持続するd by a 地元の or 地方の 歳入, under the 管理／経営 of a 地元の or 地方の 行政, than by the general 歳入 of the 明言する／公表する, of which the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする must always have the 管理／経営. Were the streets of London to be lighted and 覆うd at the expense of the 財務省, is there any probability that they would be so 井戸／弁護士席 lighted and 覆うd as they are at 現在の, or even at so small an expense? The expense, besides, instead of 存在 raised by a 地元の 税金 upon the inhabitants of each particular street, parish, or 地区 in London, would, in this 事例／患者, be defrayed out of the general 歳入 of the 明言する／公表する, and would その結果 be raised by a 税金 upon all the inhabitants of the kingdom, of whom the greater part derive no sort of 利益 from the lighting and 覆うing of the streets of London.

The 乱用s which いつかs creep into the 地元の and 地方の 行政 of a 地元の and 地方の 歳入, how enormous soever they may appear, are in reality, however, almost always very trifling in comparison of those which 一般的に take place in the 行政 and 支出 of the 歳入 of a 広大な／多数の／重要な empire. They are, besides, much more easily 訂正するd. Under the 地元の or 地方の 行政 of the 司法（官）s of the peace in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, the six days' 労働 which the country people are 強いるd to give to the 賠償 of the 主要道路s is not always perhaps very judiciously 適用するd, but it is 不十分な ever exacted with any circumstances of cruelty or 圧迫. In フラン, under the 行政 of the intendants, the 使用／適用 is not always more judicious, and the exaction is frequently the most cruel and oppressive. Such Corvees, as they are called, make one of the 主要な／長／主犯 器具s of tyranny by which those officers chastise any parish or communaute which has had the misfortune to 落ちる under their displeasure.

Of the Public 作品 and 会・原則s which are necessary for
容易にするing particular 支店s of 商業.

Some particular 支店s of 商業, which are carried on with barbarous and uncivilised nations, 要求する 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 保護. An ordinary 蓄える／店 or counting-house could give little 安全 to the goods of the merchants who 貿易（する） to the western coast of Africa. To defend them from the barbarous natives, it is necessary that the place where they are deposited should be, in some 手段, 防備を堅める／強化するd. The disorders in the 政府 of Indostan have been supposed to （判決などを）下す a like 警戒 necessary even の中で that 穏やかな and gentle people; and it was under pretence of 安全な・保証するing their persons and 所有物／資産／財産 from 暴力／激しさ that both the English and French East India Companies were 許すd to 築く the first forts which they 所有するd in that country. の中で other nations, whose vigorous 政府 will 苦しむ no strangers to 所有する any 防備を堅める／強化するd place within their 領土, it may be necessary to 持続する some 外交官／大使, 大臣, or counsel, who may both decide, によれば their own customs, the differences arising の中で his own countrymen, and, in their 論争s with the natives, may, by means of his public character, 干渉する with more 当局, and afford them a more powerful 保護, than they could 推定する／予想する from any 私的な man. The 利益／興味s of 商業 have frequently made it necessary to 持続する 大臣s in foreign countries where the 目的s, either of war or 同盟, would not have 要求するd any. The 商業 of the Turkey Company first occasioned the 設立 of an ordinary 外交官／大使 at Constantinople. The first English 大使館s to Russia arose altogether from 商業の 利益／興味s. The constant 干渉，妨害 which those 利益／興味s やむを得ず occasioned between the 支配するs of the different 明言する／公表するs of Europe, has probably introduced the custom of keeping, in all 隣人ing countries, 外交官／大使s or 大臣s 絶えず 居住（者） even in the time of peace. This custom, unknown to 古代の times, seems not to be older than the end of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth century; that is , than the time when 商業 first began to 延長する itself to the greater part of the nations of Europe, and when they first began to …に出席する to its 利益／興味s.

It seems not 不当な that the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の expense which the 保護 of any particular 支店 of 商業 may occasion should be defrayed by a 穏健な 税金 upon that particular 支店; by a 穏健な 罰金, for example, to be paid by the 仲買人s when they first enter into it, or, what is more equal, by a particular 義務 of so much per cent upon the goods which they either 輸入する into, or 輸出（する） out of, the particular countries with which it is carried on. The 保護 of 貿易（する） in general, from 著作権侵害者s and freebooters, is said to have given occasion to the first 会・原則 of the 義務s of customs. But, if it was thought reasonable to lay a general 税金 upon 貿易（する）, ーするために defray the expense of 保護するing 貿易（する） in general, it should seem 平等に reasonable to lay a particular 税金 upon a particular 支店 of 貿易（する）, ーするために defray the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の expense of 保護するing that 支店.

The 保護 of 貿易（する） in general has always been considered as 必須の to the defence of the 連邦／共和国, and, upon that account, a necessary part of the 義務 of the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする. The collection and 使用／適用 of the general 義務s of customs, therefore, have always been left to that 力／強力にする. But the 保護 of any particular 支店 of 貿易（する） is a part of the general 保護 of 貿易（する）; a part, therefore, of the 義務 of that 力／強力にする; and if nations always 行為／法令／行動するd 終始一貫して, the particular 義務s 徴収するd for the 目的s of such particular 保護 should always have been left 平等に to its 処分. But in this 尊敬（する）・点, 同様に as in many others, nations have not always 行為／法令／行動するd 終始一貫して; and in the greater part of the 商業の 明言する／公表するs of Europe, particular companies of merchants have had the 演説（する）／住所 to 説得する the 立法機関 to ゆだねる to them the 業績／成果 of this part of the 義務 of the 君主, together with all the 力／強力にするs which are やむを得ず connected with it.

These companies, though they may, perhaps, have been useful for the first introduction of some 支店s of 商業, by making, at their own expense, an 実験 which the 明言する／公表する might not think it 慎重な to make, have in the long run 証明するd, universally, either burdensome or useless, and have either mismanaged or 限定するd the 貿易（する）.

When those companies do not 貿易（する） upon a 共同の 在庫／株, but are 強いるd to 収容する／認める any person, 適切に qualified, upon 支払う／賃金ing a 確かな 罰金, and agreeing to 服従させる／提出する to the 規則s of the company, each member 貿易（する）ing upon his own 在庫／株, and at his own 危険, they are called 規制するd companies. When they 貿易（する） upon a 共同の 在庫／株, each member 株ing in the ありふれた 利益（をあげる） or loss in 割合 to his 株 in this 在庫／株, they are called 共同の 在庫／株 companies. Such companies, whether 規制するd or 共同の 在庫／株, いつかs have, and いつかs have not, 排除的 特権s.

規制するd companies 似ている, in every 尊敬（する）・点, the 会社／団体s of 貿易（する）s so ありふれた in the cities and towns of all the different countries of Europe, and are a sort of 大きくするd monopolies of the same 肉親，親類d. As no inhabitant of a town can 演習 an 会社にする／組み込むd 貿易（する） without first 得るing his freedom in the 会社／団体, so in most 事例／患者s no 支配する of the 明言する／公表する can 合法の carry on any 支店 of foreign 貿易（する）, for which a 規制するd company is 設立するd, without first becoming a member of that company. The monopoly is more or いっそう少なく strict （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the 条件 of admission are more or いっそう少なく difficult; and （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the directors of the company have more or いっそう少なく 当局, or have it more or いっそう少なく in their 力／強力にする to manage in such a manner as to 限定する the greater part of the 貿易（する） to themselves and their particular friends. In the most 古代の 規制するd companies the 特権s of 見習いの身分制度 were the same as in other 会社／団体s, and する権利を与えるd the person who had served his time to a member of the company to become himself a member, either without 支払う／賃金ing any 罰金, or upon 支払う／賃金ing a much smaller one than what was exacted of other people. The usual 会社／団体 spirit, wherever the 法律 does not 抑制する it, 勝つ／広く一帯に広がるs in all 規制するd companies. When they have been 許すd to 行為／法令／行動する によれば their natural genius, they have always, ーするために 限定する the 競争 to as small a number of persons as possible, endeavoured to 支配する the 貿易（する） to many 重荷（を負わせる） some 規則s. When the 法律 has 抑制するd them from doing this, they have become altogether useless and insignificant.

The 規制するd companies for foreign 商業 which at 現在の subsist in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain are the 古代の merchant adventurers' company, now 一般的に called the Hamburg Company, the Russia Company, the Eastland Company, the Turkey Company, and the African Company.

The 条件 of admission into the Hamburg Company are now said to be やめる 平易な, and the directors either have it not their 力／強力にする to 支配する the 貿易（する） to any burdensome 抑制 or 規則s, or, at least, have not of late 演習d that 力／強力にする. It has not always been so. About the middle of the last century, the 罰金 for admission was fifty, and at one time one hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs, and the 行為／行う of the company was said to be 極端に oppressive. In 1643, in 1645, and in 1661, the clothiers and 解放する／自由な 仲買人s of the West of England complained of them to 議会 as of monopolists who 限定するd the 貿易（する） and 抑圧するd the 製造（する）s of the country. Though those （民事の）告訴s produced an 行為／法令／行動する of 議会, they had probably 脅迫してさせるd the company so far as to 強いる them to 改革（する） their 行為／行う. Since that time, at least, there has been no （民事の）告訴s against them. By the 10th and 11th of William III, c. 6, the 罰金 for admission into the Russia Company was 減ずるd to five 続けざまに猛撃するs; and by the 25th of Charles II, c. 7, that for admission into the Eastland Company to forty shillings, while, at the same time, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, all the countries on the north 味方する of the Baltic, were 免除されたd from their 排除的 借り切る／憲章. The 行為／行う of those companies had probably given occasion to those two 行為／法令／行動するs of 議会. Before that time, Sir Josiah Child had 代表するd both these and the Hamburg Company as 極端に oppressive, and imputed to their bad 管理／経営 the low 明言する／公表する of the 貿易（する） which we at that time carried on to the countries comprehended within their 各々の 借り切る／憲章s. But though such companies may not, in the 現在の times, be very oppressive, they are certainly altogether useless. To be 単に useless, indeed, is perhaps the highest eulogy which can ever 正確に，正当に be bestowed upon a 規制するd company; and all the three companies above について言及するd seem, in their 現在の 明言する／公表する, to deserve this eulogy.

The 罰金 for admission into the Turkey Company was 以前は twenty-five 続けざまに猛撃するs for all persons under twenty-six years of age, and fifty 続けざまに猛撃するs for all persons above that age. Nobody but mere merchants could be 認める; a 制限 which 除外するd all shopkeepers and retailers. By a bye-法律, no British 製造（する）s could be 輸出（する）d to Turkey but in the general ships of the company; and as those ships sailed always from the port of London, this 制限 限定するd the 貿易（する） to that expensive port, and the 仲買人s to those who lived in London and in its neighbourhood. By another bye-法律, no person living within twenty miles of London, and not 解放する／自由な of the city, could be 認める a member; another 制限 which, joined to the foregoing, やむを得ず 除外するd all but the freemen of London. As the time for the 負担ing and sailing of those general ships depended altogether upon the directors, they could easily fill them with their own goods and those of their particular friends, to the 除外 of others, who, they might pretend, had made their 提案s too late. In this 明言する／公表する of things, therefore, this company was in every 尊敬（する）・点 a strict and oppressive monopoly. Those 乱用s gave occasion to the 行為／法令／行動する of the 26th of George II, c. 18, 減ずるing the 罰金 for admission to twenty 続けざまに猛撃するs for all persons, without any distinction of ages, or any 制限, either to mere merchants, or to the freemen of London; and 認めるing to all such persons the liberty of 輸出（する）ing, from all the ports of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain to any port in Turkey, all British goods of which the exportation was not 禁じるd; and of 輸入するing from thence all Turkish goods of which the 輸入 was not 禁じるd, upon 支払う／賃金ing both the general 義務s of customs, and the particular 義務s 査定する／（税金などを）課すd for defraying the necessary expenses of the company; and submitting, at the same time, to the lawful 当局 of the British 外交官／大使 and 領事s 居住（者） in Turkey, and to the bye 法律s of the company duly 制定するd. To 妨げる any 圧迫 by those bye-法律s , it was by the same 行為／法令／行動する 任命するd, that if any seven members of the company conceived themselves aggrieved by any bye-法律 which should be 制定するd after the passing of this 行為／法令／行動する, they might 控訴，上告 to the Board of 貿易（する） and 農園s (to the 当局 of which a 委員会 of the Privy 会議 has now 後継するd), 供給するd such 控訴，上告 was brought within twelve months after the bye-法律 was 制定するd; and that if any seven members conceived themselves aggrieved by any bye-法律 which had been 制定するd before the passing of this 行為／法令／行動する, they might bring a like 控訴，上告, 供給するd it was within twelve months after the day on which this 行為／法令／行動する was to take place. The experience of one year, however, may not always be 十分な to discover to all the members of a 広大な／多数の／重要な company, the pernicious 傾向 of a particular bye-法律; and if several of them should afterwards discover it, neither the Board of 貿易（する）, nor the 委員会 of 会議, can afford them any 是正する. The 反対する, besides, of the greater part of the bye-法律s of all 規制するd companies, 同様に as of all other 会社／団体s, is not so much to 抑圧する those who are already members, as to discourage others from becoming so; which may be done, not only by a high 罰金, but by many other contrivances. The constant 見解（をとる） of such companies is always to raise the 率 of their own 利益（をあげる） as high as they can; to keep the market, both for the goods which they 輸出（する）, and for those which they 輸入する, as much understocked as they can: which can be done only by 抑制するing the 競争, or by discouraging new adventurers from entering into the 貿易（する）. A 罰金 even of twenty 続けざまに猛撃するs, besides, though it may not perhaps be 十分な to discourage any man from entering into the Turkey 貿易（する） with an 意向 to continue in it, may be enough to discourage a 思索的な merchant from hazarding a 選び出す／独身 adventure in it. In all 貿易（する）s, the 正規の／正選手 設立するd 仲買人s, even though not 会社にする／組み込むd, 自然に 連合させる to raise 利益（をあげる）s, which are noway so likely to be kept, at all times, 負かす／撃墜する to the ir proper level, as by the 時折の 競争 of 思索的な adventure. The Turkey 貿易（する）, though in some 手段 laid open by this 行為／法令／行動する of 議会, is still considered by many people as very far from 存在 altogether 解放する／自由な. The Turkey Company 与える／捧げる to 持続する an 外交官／大使 and two or three 領事s, who, like other public 大臣s, せねばならない be 持続するd altogether by the 明言する／公表する, and the 貿易（する） laid open to all his Majesty's 支配するs. The different 税金s 徴収するd by the company, for this and other 会社／団体 目的s, might afford avenue much more than 十分な to enable the 明言する／公表する to 持続する such 大臣s.

規制するd companies, it was 観察するd by Sir Josiah Child, though they had frequently supported public 大臣s, had never 持続するd any forts or 守備隊s in the countries to which they 貿易（する）d; 反して 共同の 在庫／株 companies frequently had. And in reality the former seem to be much more unfit for this sort of service than the latter. First, the directors of a 規制するd company have no particular 利益／興味 in the 繁栄 of the general 貿易（する） of the company for the sake of which such forts and 守備隊s are 持続するd. The decay of that general 貿易（する） may even frequently 与える／捧げる to the advantage of their own 私的な 貿易（する）; as by 減らすing the number of their competitors it may enable them both to buy cheaper, and to sell dearer. The directors of a 共同の 在庫／株 company, on the contrary, having only their 株 in the 利益（をあげる）s which are made upon the ありふれた 在庫／株 committed to their 管理／経営, have no 私的な 貿易（する） of their own of which the 利益／興味 can be separated from that of the general 貿易（する） of the company. Their 私的な 利益／興味 is connected with the 繁栄 of the general 貿易（する） of the company, and with the 維持／整備 of the forts and 守備隊s which are necessary for its defence. They are more likely, therefore, to have that continual and careful attention which that 維持／整備 やむを得ず 要求するs. Secondly, the directors of a 共同の 在庫／株 company have always the 管理／経営 of a large 資本／首都, the 共同の 在庫／株 of the company, a part of which they may frequently 雇う, with propriety, in building, 修理ing, and 持続するing such necessary forts and 守備隊s. But the directors of a 規制するd company, having the 管理／経営 of no ありふれた 資本／首都, have no other 基金 to 雇う in this way but the casual 歳入 arising from the admission 罰金s, and from the 会社／団体 義務s 課すd upon the 貿易（する） of the company. Though they had the same 利益／興味, therefore, to …に出席する to the 維持／整備 of such forts and 守備隊s, they can seldom have the same ability to （判決などを）下す that attention effectual. The 維持／整備 of a public 大臣 要求するing 不十分な any attention, and but a 穏健な and 限られた／立憲的な expense, is a 商売／仕事 much more suitable both to the temper and abilities of a 規制するd company.

Long after the time of Sir Josiah Child, however, in 1750, a 規制するd company was 設立するd, the 現在の company of merchants 貿易（する）ing to Africa, which was expressly 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金d at first with the 維持／整備 of all the British forts and 守備隊s that 嘘（をつく） between Cape Blanc and the Cape of Good Hope, and afterwards with that of those only which 嘘（をつく） between Cape 紅 and the Cape of Good Hope. The 行為／法令／行動する which 設立するs this company (the 23rd of George II, c. 3) seems to have had two 際立った 反対するs in 見解（をとる）; first, to 抑制する effectually the oppressive and 独占するing spirit which is natural to the directors of a 規制するd company; and secondly, to 軍隊 them, as much as possible, to give an attention, which is not natural to them, に向かって the 維持／整備 of forts and 守備隊s.

For the first of these 目的s the 罰金 for admission is 限られた／立憲的な to forty shillings. The company is 禁じるd from 貿易（する）ing in their 法人組織の／企業の capacity, or upon a 共同の 在庫／株; from borrowing money upon ありふれた 調印（する）, or from laying any 抑制s upon the 貿易（する） which may be carried on 自由に from all places, and by all persons 存在 British 支配するs, and 支払う／賃金ing the 罰金. The 政府 is in a 委員会 of nine persons who 会合，会う at London, but who are chosen 毎年 by the freemen of the company at London, Bristol, and Liverpool; three from each place. No 委員会-man can be continued in office for more than three years together. Any 委員会-man might be 除去するd by the Board of 貿易（する） and 農園s, now by a 委員会 会議, after 存在 heard in his own defence. The 委員会 are forbid to 輸出（する） negroes from Africa, or to 輸入する any African goods into 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. But as they are 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金d with the 維持／整備 of forts and 守備隊s, they may, for that 目的, 輸出（する） from 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain to Africa goods and 蓄える／店s of different 肉親，親類d. Out of the monies which they shall receive from the company, they are 許すd a sum not 越えるing eight hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs for the salaries of their clerks and スパイ／執行官s at London, Bristol, and Liverpool, the house rent of their office at London, and all other expenses of 管理／経営, （売買）手数料，委託（する）／委員会／権限, and 機関 in England. What remains of this sum, after defraying these different expenses, they may divide の中で themselves, as 補償（金） for their trouble, in what manner they think proper. By this 憲法, it might have been 推定する／予想するd that the spirit of monopoly would have been effectually 抑制するd, and the first of these 目的s 十分に answered. It would seem, however, that it had not. Though by the 4th of George III, c. 20, the fort of Senegal, with all its dependencies, had been vested in the company of merchants 貿易（する）ing to Africa, yet in the year に引き続いて (by the 5th of George III, c. 44) not only Senegal and its dependencies, but the whole coast from the port of Sallee, in south Barbary, to Cape 紅, was 免除されたd from the 裁判権 of that company, was vested in the 栄冠を与える, and the 貿易（する） to it 宣言するd 解放する／自由な to all his Majesty's 支配するs. The company had been 嫌疑者，容疑者／疑うd of 抑制するing the 貿易（する）, and of 設立するing some sort of 妥当でない monopoly. It is not, however, very 平易な to conceive how, under the 規則s of the 23rd of George II, they could do so. In the printed 審議s of the House of ありふれたs, not always the most authentic 記録，記録的な／記録するs of truth, I 観察する, however, that they have been （刑事）被告 of this. The members of the 委員会 of nine, 存在 all merchants, and the 知事s and factors, in their different forts and 解決／入植地s, 存在 all 扶養家族 upon them, it is not ありそうもない that the latter might have given peculiar attention to the consignments and （売買）手数料，委託（する）／委員会／権限s of the former which would 設立する a real monopoly.

For the second of these, 目的s, the 維持／整備 of the forts and 守備隊s, an 年次の sum has been allotted to them by 議会, 一般に about L13,000. For the proper 使用／適用 of this sum, the 委員会 is 強いるd to account 毎年 to the Cursitor Baron of 国庫; which account is afterwards to be laid before 議会. But 議会, which gives so little attention to the 使用／適用 of millions, is not likely to give much to that of L13,000 a year; and the Cursitor Baron of 国庫, from his profession and education, is not likely to be profoundly 技術d in the proper expense of forts and 守備隊s. The captains of his Majesty's 海軍, indeed, or any other （売買）手数料，委託（する）／委員会／権限d officers 任命するd by the Board of Admiralty, may 問い合わせ into the 条件 of the forts and 守備隊s, and 報告（する）／憶測 their 観察s to that board. But that board seems to have no direct 裁判権 over the 委員会, nor any 当局 to 訂正する those whose 行為／行う it may thus 問い合わせ into; and the captains of his Majesty's 海軍, besides, are not supposed to be always 深く，強烈に learned in the science of 要塞. 除去 from an office which can be enjoyed only for the 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of three years, and of which the lawful emoluments, even during that 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語, are so very small, seems to be the 最大の 罰 to which any 委員会-man is liable for any fault, except direct malversation, or 使い込み，横領, either of the public money, or of that of the company; and the 恐れる of that 罰 can never be a 動機 of 十分な 負わせる to 軍隊 a continual and careful attention to a 商売／仕事 to which he has no other 利益／興味 to …に出席する. The 委員会 are （刑事）被告 of having sent out bricks and 石／投石するs from England for the 賠償 of Cape Coast 城 on the coast of Guinea, a 商売／仕事 for which 議会 had several times 認めるd an 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の sum of money. These bricks and 石／投石するs too, which had thus been sent upon so long a voyage, were said to have been of so bad a 質 that it was necessary to 再構築する from the 創立／基礎 the 塀で囲むs which had been 修理d with them. The forts and 守備隊s which 嘘（をつく） north of Cape 紅 are not only 持続するd at the expense of the 明言する／公表する, but are under the 即座の 政府 of the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする; and why those which 嘘（をつく） south of that Cape, and which are, in part at least, 持続するd at the expense of the 明言する／公表する, should be under a different 政府, it seems not very 平易な even to imagine a good 推論する／理由. The 保護 of the Mediterranean 貿易（する） was the 初めの 目的 of pretence of the 守備隊s of Gibraltar and Minorca, and the 維持／整備 and 政府 of those 守備隊s has always been, very 適切に, committed, not to the Turkey Company, but to the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする. In the extent of its dominion consists, in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段, the pride and dignity of that 力／強力にする; and it is not very likely to fail in attention to what is necessary for the defence of that dominion. The 守備隊s at Gibraltar and Minorca, accordingly, have never been neglected; though Minorca has been twice taken, and is now probably lost for ever, that 災害 was never even imputed to any neglect in the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする. I would not, however, be understood to insinuate that either of those expensive 守備隊s was ever, even in the smallest degree, necessary for the 目的 for which they were 初めは dismembered from the Spanish 君主国. That dismemberment, perhaps, never served any other real 目的 than to 疎遠にする from England her natural 同盟（する） the King of Spain, and to 部隊 the two 主要な／長／主犯 支店s of the house of Bourbon in a much 厳格な人 and more 永久の 同盟 than the 関係 of 血 could ever have 部隊d them.

共同の 在庫／株 companies, 設立するd by 王室の 借り切る／憲章 or by 行為／法令／行動する of 議会, 異なる in several 尊敬（する）・点s, not only from 規制するd companies, but from 私的な copartneries.

First, in a 私的な copartnery, no partner, without the 同意 of the company, can 移転 his 株 to another person, or introduce a new member into the company. Each member, however, may, upon proper 警告, 身を引く from the copartnery, and 需要・要求する 支払い（額） from them of his 株 of the ありふれた 在庫／株. In a 共同の 在庫／株 company, on the contrary, no member can 需要・要求する 支払い（額） of his 株 from the company; but each member can, without their 同意, 移転 his 株 to another person, and その為に introduce a new member. The value of a 株 in a 共同の 在庫／株 is always the price which it will bring in the market; and this may be either greater or いっそう少なく, in any 割合, than the sum which its owner stands credited for in the 在庫／株 of the company.

Secondly, in a 私的な copartnery, each partner is bound for the 負債s 契約d by the company to the whole extent of his fortune. In a 共同の 在庫／株 company, on the contrary, each partner is bound only to the extent of his 株.

The 貿易（する） of a 共同の 在庫／株 company is always managed by a 法廷，裁判所 of directors. This 法廷，裁判所, indeed, is frequently 支配する, in many 尊敬（する）・点s, to the 支配（する）／統制する of a general 法廷，裁判所 of proprietors. But the greater part of those proprietors seldom pretend to understand anything of the 商売／仕事 of the company, and when the spirit of 派閥 happens not to 勝つ／広く一帯に広がる の中で them, give themselves no trouble about it, but receive contentedly such half-年一回の or 年一回の （株主への）配当 as the directors think proper to make to them. This total 控除 from trouble and from 危険, beyond a 限られた／立憲的な sum, encourages many people to become adventurers in 共同の 在庫／株 companies, who would, upon no account, hazard their fortunes in any 私的な copartnery. Such companies, therefore, 一般的に draw to themselves much greater 在庫／株s than any 私的な copartnery can 誇る of. The 貿易（する）ing 在庫／株 of the South Sea Company, at one time, 量d to 上向きs of thirty-three millions eight hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs. The divided 資本／首都 of the Bank of England 量s, at 現在の, to ten millions seven hundred and eighty thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs. The directors of such companies, however, 存在 the 経営者／支配人s rather of other people's money than of their own, it cannot 井戸／弁護士席 be 推定する／予想するd that they should watch over it with the same anxious vigilance with which the partners in a 私的な copartnery frequently watch over their own. Like the stewards of a rich man, they are apt to consider attention to small 事柄s as not for their master's honour, and very easily give themselves a 免除 from having it. 怠慢，過失 and profusion, therefore, must always 勝つ／広く一帯に広がる, more or いっそう少なく, in the 管理／経営 of the 事件／事情／状勢s of such a company. It is upon this account that 共同の 在庫／株 companies for foreign 貿易（する） have seldom been able to 持続する the 競争 against 私的な adventurers. They have, accordingly, very seldom 後継するd without an 排除的 特権, and frequently have not 後継するd with one. Without an 排除的 特権 they have 一般的に mismanaged the 貿易（する）. With an exclusi ve 特権 they have both mismanaged and 限定するd it.

The 王室の African Company, the 前任者s of the 現在の African Company, had an 排除的 特権 by 借り切る／憲章, but as that 借り切る／憲章 had not been 確認するd by 行為／法令／行動する of 議会, the 貿易（する）, in consequence of the 宣言 of 権利s, was, soon after the 革命, laid open to all his Majesty's 支配するs. The Hudson's Bay Company are, as to their 合法的な 権利s, in the same 状況／情勢 as the 王室の African Company. Their 排除的 借り切る／憲章 has not been 確認するd by 行為／法令／行動する of 議会. The South Sea Company, as long as they continued to be a 貿易（する）ing company, had an 排除的 特権 確認するd by 行為／法令／行動する of 議会; as have likewise the 現在の 部隊d Company of Merchants 貿易（する）ing to the East Indies.

The 王室の African Company soon 設立する that they could not 持続する the 競争 against 私的な adventurers, whom, notwithstanding the 宣言 of 権利s, they continued for some time to call interlopers, and to 迫害する as such. In 1698, however, the 私的な adventurers were 支配するd to a 義務 of ten per cent upon almost all the different 支店s of their 貿易（する）, to be 雇うd by the company in the 維持／整備 of their forts and 守備隊s But, notwithstanding this 激しい 税金, the company were still unable to 持続する the 競争. Their 在庫／株 and credit 徐々に 拒絶する／低下するd. In 1712, their 負債s had become so 広大な／多数の／重要な that a particular 行為／法令／行動する of 議会 was thought necessary, both for their 安全 and for that of their creditors. It was 制定するd that the 決意／決議 of two-thirds of these creditors in number and value should 貯蔵所d the 残り／休憩（する）, both with regard to the time which should be 許すd to the company for the 支払い（額） of their 負債s, and with regard to any other 協定 which it might be thought proper to make with them 関心ing those 負債s. In 1730, their 事件／事情／状勢s were in so 広大な／多数の／重要な disorder that they were altogether incapable of 持続するing their forts and 守備隊s, the 単独の 目的 and pretext of their 会・原則. From that year, till their final 解散, the 議会 裁判官d it necessary to 許す the 年次の sum of ten thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs for that 目的. In 1732, after having been for many years losers by the 貿易（する） of carrying negroes to the West Indies, they at last 解決するd to give it up altogether; to sell to the 私的な 仲買人s to America the negroes which they 購入（する）d upon the coast; and to 雇う their servants in a 貿易（する） to the inland parts of Africa for gold dust, elephants' teeth, dyeing 麻薬s, etc. But their success in this more 限定するd 貿易（する） was not greater than in their former 広範囲にわたる one. Their 事件／事情／状勢s continued to go 徐々に to 拒絶する／低下する, till at last, 存在 in every 尊敬（する）・点 a 破産者／倒産した company, they were 解散させるd by 行為／法令／行動する of 議会, and their forts and 守備隊s vested in the 現在の 規制するd company of merchants 貿易（する）ing to Africa. Before the erection of the 王室の African Company, there had been three other 共同の 在庫／株 companies successively 設立するd, one after another, for the African 貿易（する）. They were all 平等に 不成功の. They all, however, had 排除的 借り切る／憲章s, which, though not 確認するd by 行為／法令／行動する of 議会, were in those days supposed to 伝える a real 排除的 特権.

The Hudson's Bay Company, before their misfortunes in the late war, had been much more fortunate than the 王室の African Company. Their necessary expense is much smaller. The whole number of people whom they 持続する in their different 解決／入植地s and habitations, which they have honoured with the 指名する of forts, is said not to 越える a hundred and twenty persons. This number, however, is 十分な to 準備する beforehand the 貨物 of furs and other goods necessary for 負担ing their ships, which, on account of the ice, can seldom remain above six or eight weeks in those seas. This advantage of having a 貨物 ready 用意が出来ている could not for several years be acquired by 私的な adventurers, and without it there seems to be no 可能性 of 貿易（する）ing to Hudson's Bay. The 穏健な 資本／首都 of the company, which, it is said, does not 越える one hundred and ten thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs, may besides be 十分な to enable them to engross the whole, or almost the whole, 貿易（する） and 黒字／過剰 produce of the 哀れな, though 広範囲にわたる country, comprehended within their 借り切る／憲章. No 私的な adventurers, accordingly, have ever 試みる／企てるd to 貿易（する） to that country in 競争 with them. This company, therefore, have always enjoyed an 排除的 貿易（する） in fact, though they may have no 権利 to it in 法律. Over and above all this, the 穏健な 資本／首都 of this company is said to be divided の中で a very small number of proprietors. But a 共同の 在庫／株 company, consisting of a small number of proprietors, with a 穏健な 資本／首都, approaches very nearly to the nature of a 私的な copartnery, and may be 有能な of nearly the same degree of vigilance and attention. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, if, in consequence of these different advantages, the Hudson's Bay Company had, before the late war, been able to carry on their 貿易（する） with a かなりの degree of success. It does not seem probable, however, that their 利益（をあげる）s ever approached to what the late Mr. Dobbs imagined them. A much more sober and judicious writer, Mr. Anderson, author of The His torical and Chronological Deduction of 商業, very 正確に，正当に 観察するs that, upon 診察するing the accounts of which Mr. Dobbs himself was given for several years together of their 輸出（する）s and 輸入するs, and upon making proper allowances for their 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 危険 and expense, it does not appear that their 利益（をあげる）s deserve to be envied, or that they can much, if at all, 越える the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s of 貿易（する）.

The South Sea Company never had any forts or 守備隊s to 持続する, and therefore were 完全に 免除されたd from one 広大な／多数の／重要な expense to which other 共同の 在庫／株 companies for foreign 貿易（する） are 支配する. But they had an 巨大な 資本／首都 divided の中で an 巨大な number of proprietors. It was 自然に to be 推定する／予想するd, therefore, that folly, 怠慢，過失, and profusion should 勝つ／広く一帯に広がる in the whole 管理／経営 of their 事件／事情／状勢s. The knavery and extravagance of their 在庫／株-jobbing 事業／計画（する）s are 十分に known, and the explication of them would be foreign to the 現在の 支配する. Their 商業の 事業／計画（する）s were not much better 行為／行うd. The first 貿易（する） which they engaged in was that of 供給（する）ing the Spanish West Indies with negroes, of which (in consequence of what was called the Assiento 契約 認めるd them by the 条約 of Utrecht) they had the 排除的 特権. But as it was not 推定する／予想するd that much 利益（をあげる） could be made by this 貿易（する）, both the Portuguese and French companies, who had enjoyed it upon the same 条件 before them, having been 廃虚d by it, they were 許すd, as 補償（金）, to send 毎年 a ship of a 確かな 重荷（を負わせる） to 貿易（する） 直接／まっすぐに to the Spanish West Indies. Of the ten voyages which this 年次の ship was 許すd to make, they are said to have 伸び（る）d かなり by one, that of the 王室の Caroline in 1731, and to have been losers, more or いっそう少なく, by almost all the 残り／休憩（する）. Their ill success was imputed, by their factors and スパイ／執行官s, to the ゆすり，強要 and 圧迫 of the Spanish 政府; but was, perhaps, principally 借りがあるing to the profusion and depredations of those very factors and スパイ／執行官s, some of whom are said to have acquired 広大な／多数の／重要な fortunes even in one year. In 1734, the company 嘆願（書）d the king that they might be 許すd to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of the 貿易（する） and tonnage of their 年次の ship, on account of the little 利益（をあげる） which they made by it, and to 受託する such 同等（の） as they could 得る from the of Spain.

In 1724, this company had undertaken the 鯨-漁業. Of this, indeed, they had no monopoly; but as long as they carried it on, no other British 支配するs appear to have engaged in it. Of the eight voyages which their ships made to Greenland, they were gainers by one, and losers by all the 残り／休憩（する）. After their eighth and last voyage, when they had sold their ships, 蓄える／店s, and utensils, they 設立する that their whole loss, upon this 支店, 資本／首都 and 利益／興味 含むd, 量d to 上向きs of two hundred and thirty-seven thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs.

In 1722, this company 嘆願（書）d the 議会 to be 許すd to divide their 巨大な 資本／首都 of more than thirty-three millions eight hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs, the whole of which had been lent to 政府, into two equal parts: The one half, or 上向きs of sixteen millions nine hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs, to be put upon the same 地盤 with other 政府 annuities, and not to be 支配する to the 負債s 契約d, or losses incurred, by the directors of the company in the 起訴 of their 商業の 事業／計画（する）s; the other half to remain, as before, a 貿易（する）ing 在庫／株, and to be 支配する to those 負債s and losses. The 嘆願（書） was too reasonable not to be 認めるd. In 1733, they again 嘆願（書）d the 議会 that three-fourths of their 貿易（する）ing 在庫／株 might be turned into annuity 在庫／株, and only one-fourth remain as 貿易（する）ing 在庫／株, or exposed to the hazards arising from the bad 管理／経営 of their directors. Both their annuity and 貿易（する）ing 在庫／株s had, by this time, been 減ずるd more than two millions each by several different 支払い（額）s from 政府; so that this fourth 量d only to L3,662,784 8s. 6d. In 1748, all the 需要・要求するs of the company upon the King of Spain, in consequence of the Assiento 契約, were, by the 条約 of Aix-la-Chapelle, given up for what was supposed an 同等（の）. An end was put to their 貿易（する） with the Spanish West Indies, the 残りの人，物 of their 貿易（する）ing 在庫／株 was turned into an annuity 在庫／株, and the company 中止するd in every 尊敬（する）・点 to be a 貿易（する）ing company.

It せねばならない be 観察するd that in the 貿易（する） which the South Sea Company carried on by means of their 年次の ship, the only 貿易（する） by which it ever was 推定する／予想するd that they could make any かなりの 利益（をあげる）, they were not without competitors, either in the foreign or in the home market. At Carthagena, Porto Bello, and La Vera Cruz, they had to 遭遇（する） the 競争 of the Spanish merchants, who brought from Cadiz, to those markets, European goods of the same 肉親，親類d with the outward 貨物 of their ship; and in England they had to 遭遇（する） that of the English merchants, who 輸入するd from Cadiz goods of the Spanish West Indies of the same 肉親，親類d with the inward 貨物. The goods both of the Spanish and English merchants, indeed, were, perhaps, 支配する to higher 義務s. But the loss occasioned by the 怠慢，過失, profusion, and malversation of the servants of the company had probably been a 税金 much heavier than all those 義務s. That a 共同の 在庫／株 company should be able to carry on 首尾よく any 支店 of foreign 貿易（する）, when 私的な adventurers can come into any sort of open and fair 競争 with them, seems contrary to all experience.

The old English East India Company was 設立するd in 1600 by a 借り切る／憲章 from Queen Elizabeth. In the first twelve voyages which they fitted out for India, they appear to have 貿易（する）d as a 規制するd company, with separate 在庫／株s, though only in the general ships of the company. In 1612, they 部隊d into a 共同の 在庫／株. Their 借り切る／憲章 was 排除的, and though not 確認するd by 行為／法令／行動する of 議会, was in those days supposed to 伝える a real 排除的 特権. For many years, therefore, they were not much 乱すd by interlopers. Their 資本／首都, which never 越えるd seven hundred and forty-four thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs, and of which fifty 続けざまに猛撃するs was a 株, was not so exorbitant, nor their 取引 so 広範囲にわたる, as to afford either a pretext for 重過失 and profusion, or a cover to 甚だしい／１２ダース malversation. Notwithstanding some 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の losses, occasioned partly by the malice of the Dutch East India Company, and partly by other 事故s, they carried on for many years a successful 貿易（する）. But in 過程 of time, when the 原則s of liberty were better understood, it became every day more and more doubtful how far a 王室の 借り切る／憲章, not 確認するd by 行為／法令／行動する of 議会, could 伝える an 排除的 特権. Upon this question the 決定／判定勝ち（する）s of the 法廷，裁判所s of 司法（官） were not uniform, but 変化させるd with the 当局 of 政府 and the humours of the times. Interlopers multiplied upon them, and に向かって the end of the 統治する of Charles II, through the whole of that of James II and during a part of that of William III, 減ずるd them to 広大な／多数の／重要な 苦しめる. In 1698, a 提案 was made to 議会 of 前進するing two millions to 政府 at eight per cent, 供給するd the 加入者s were 築くd into a new East India Company with 排除的 特権s. The old East India Company 申し込む／申し出d seven hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs, nearly the 量 of their 資本／首都, at four per cent upon the same 条件s. But such was at that time the 明言する／公表する of public credit, that it was more convenient for 政府 to borrow two millions at eight per cent than seven hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs at four. The 提案 of the new 加入者s was 受託するd, and a new East India Company 設立するd in consequence. The old East India Company, however, had a 権利 to continue their 貿易（する） till 1701. They had, at the same time, in the 指名する of their treasurer, subscribed, very artfully, three hundred and fifteen thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs into the 在庫／株 of the new. By a 怠慢，過失 in the 表現 of the 行為／法令／行動する of 議会 which vested the East India 貿易（する） in the 加入者s to this 貸付金 of two millions, it did not appear evident that they were all 強いるd to 部隊 into a 共同の 在庫／株. A few 私的な 仲買人s, whose subscriptions 量d only to seven thousand two hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs, 主張するd upon the 特権 of 貿易（する）ing 分かれて upon their own 在庫／株s and at their own 危険. The old East India Company had a 権利 to a separate 貿易（する） upon their old 在庫／株 till 1701; and they had likewise, both before and after that period, a 権利, like that of other 私的な 仲買人s, to a separate 貿易（する） upon the three hundred and fifteen thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs which they had subscribed into the 在庫／株 of the new company. The 競争 of the two companies with the 私的な 仲買人s, and with one another, is said to have 井戸／弁護士席-nigh 廃虚d both. Upon a その後の occasion, in 1730, when a 提案 was made to 議会 for putting the 貿易（する） under the 管理／経営 of a 規制するd company, and その為に laying it in some 手段 open, the East India Company, in 対立 to this 提案, 代表するd in very strong 条件 what had been, at this time, the 哀れな 影響s, as they thought them, of this 競争. In India, they said, it raised the price of goods so high that they were not 価値（がある） the buying; and in England, by overstocking the market, it sunk their price so low that no 利益（をあげる） could be made by them. That by a more plentiful 供給（する）, to the 広大な／多数の／重要な advantage and conveniency of the public, it must have 減ずるd, very much, the price of Indian goods in the English market, cannot 井戸／弁護士席 be 疑問d; but that it should have raise d very much their price in the Indian market seems not very probable, as all the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 需要・要求する which that 競争 could occasion must have been but as a 減少（する） of water in the 巨大な ocean of Indian 商業. The 増加する of 需要・要求する, besides, though in the beginning it may いつかs raise the price of goods, never fails to lower it in the run. It encourages 生産／産物, and その為に 増加するs the 競争 of the 生産者s, who, ーするために undersell one another, have 頼みの綱 to new 分割s of 労働 and new 改良s of art which might never さもなければ have been thought of. The 哀れな 影響s of which the company complained were the cheapness of 消費 and the 激励 given to 生産／産物, 正確に the two 影響s which it is the 広大な／多数の／重要な 商売／仕事 of political economy to 促進する. The 競争, however, of which they gave this doleful account, had not been 許すd to be of long continuance. In 1702, the two companies were, in some 手段, 部隊d by an indenture tripartite, to which the queen was the third party; and in 1708, they were, by 行為／法令／行動する of 議会, perfectly 強固にする／合併する／制圧するd into one company by their 現在の 指名する of the The 部隊d Company of Merchants 貿易（する）ing to the East Indies. Into this 行為／法令／行動する it was thought 価値（がある） while to 挿入する a 条項 許すing the separate 仲買人s to continue their 貿易（する） till Michaelmas 1711, but at the same time 権力を与えるing the directors, upon three years' notice, to redeem their little 資本／首都 of seven thousand two hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs, and その為に to 変える the whole 在庫／株 of the company into a 共同の 在庫／株. By the same 行為／法令／行動する, the 資本／首都 of the company, in consequence of a new 貸付金 to 政府, was augmented from two millions to three millions two hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs. In 1743, the company 前進するd another million to 政府. But this million 存在 raised, not by a call upon the proprietors, but by selling annuities and 契約ing 社債-負債s, it did not augment the 在庫／株 upon which the proprietors could （人命などを）奪う，主張する a （株主への）配当. It augmented, however, their tradi ng 在庫／株, it 存在 平等に liable with the other three millions two hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs to the losses 支えるd, and 負債s 契約d, by the company in 起訴 of their 商業の 事業／計画（する）s. From 1708, or at least from 1711, this company, 存在 配達するd from all competitors, and fully 設立するd in the monopoly of the English 商業 to the East Indies, carried on a successful 貿易（する）, and from their 利益（をあげる）s made 毎年 a 穏健な （株主への）配当 to their proprietors. During the French war, which began in 1741, the ambition of Mr. Dupleix, the French 知事 of Pondicherry, 伴う／関わるd them in the wars of the Carnatic, and in the politics of the Indian princes. After many signal successes, and 平等に signal losses, they at last lost マドラス, at that time their 主要な／長／主犯 解決／入植地 in India. It was 回復するd to them by the 条約 of Aix-la-Chapelle; and about this time the spirit of war and conquest seems to have taken 所有／入手 of their servants in India, and never since to have left them. During the French war, which began in 1755, their 武器 partook of the general good fortune of those of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. They defended マドラス, took Pondicherry, 回復するd Calcutta, and acquired the 歳入s of a rich and 広範囲にわたる 領土, 量ing, it was then said, to 上向きs of three millions a year. They remained for several years in 静かな 所有／入手 of this 歳入: but in 1767, 行政 laid （人命などを）奪う，主張する to their 領土の 取得／買収s, and the 歳入 arising from them, as of 権利 belonging to the 栄冠を与える; and the company, in 補償（金） for this （人命などを）奪う，主張する, agreed to 支払う／賃金 the 政府 four hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs a year. They had before this 徐々に augmented their （株主への）配当 from about six to ten per cent; that is, upon their 資本／首都 of three millions two hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs they had 増加するd it by a hundred and twenty-eight thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs, or had raised it from one hundred and ninety-two thousand to three hundred and twenty thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs a year. They were 試みる／企てるing about this time to raise it still その上の, t o twelve and a half per cent, which would have made their 年次の 支払い（額）s to their proprietors equal to what they had agreed to 支払う／賃金 毎年 to 政府, or to four hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs a year.

But during the two years in which their 協定 with 政府 was to take place, they were 抑制するd from any その上の 増加する of （株主への）配当 by two 連続する 行為／法令／行動するs of 議会, of which the 反対する was to enable them to make a speedier 進歩 in the 支払い（額） of their 負債s, which were at this time 概算の at 上向きs of six or seven millions 英貨の／純銀の. In 1769, they 新たにするd their 協定 with 政府 for five years more, and 規定するd that during the course of that period they should be 許すd 徐々に to 増加する their （株主への）配当 to twelve and a half per cent; never 増加するing it, however, more than one per cent in one year. This 増加する of （株主への）配当, therefore, when it had risen to its 最大の 高さ, could augment their 年次の 支払い（額）s, to their proprietors and 政府 together, but by six hundred and eight thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs beyond what they had been before their late 領土の 取得／買収s. What the 甚だしい／１２ダース 歳入 of those 領土の 取得／買収s was supposed to 量 to has already been について言及するd; and by an account brought by the Cruttenden East Indiaman in 1768, the 逮捕する 歳入, （疑いを）晴らす of all deductions and 軍の 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金s, was 明言する／公表するd at two millions forty-eight thousand seven hundred and forty-seven 続けざまに猛撃するs. They were said at the same time to 所有する another 歳入, arising partly from lands, but 主として from the customs 設立するd at their different 解決／入植地s, 量ing to four hundred and thirty-nine thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs. The 利益（をあげる）s of their 貿易（する） too, によれば the 証拠 of their chairman before the House of ありふれたs, 量d at this time to at least four hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs a year, によれば that of their accountant, to at least five hundred thousand; によれば the lowest account, at least equal to the highest （株主への）配当 that was to be paid to their proprietors. So 広大な／多数の／重要な a 歳入 might certainly have afforded an augmentation of six hundred and eight thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs in their 年次の 支払い（額）s, and at the same time have left a large 沈むing 基金 十分な for the 迅速な reduct イオン of their 負債s. In 1773, however, their 負債s, instead of 存在 減ずるd, were augmented by an arrear to the 財務省 in the 支払い（額） of the four hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs, by another to the custom-house for 義務s 未払いの, by a large 負債 to the bank for money borrowed, and by a fourth for 法案s drawn upon them from India, and wantonly 受託するd, to the 量 of 上向きs of twelve hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs. The 苦しめる which these 蓄積するd （人命などを）奪う，主張するs brought upon them, 強いるd them not only to 減ずる all at once their （株主への）配当 to six per cent, but to throw themselves upon the mercy of 政府, and to supplicate, first, a 解放（する） from その上の 支払い（額） of the 規定するd four hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs a year; and, secondly, a 貸付金 of fourteen hundred thousand, to save them from 即座の 破産. The 広大な／多数の／重要な 増加する of their fortune had, it seems, only served to furnish their servants with a pretext for greater profusion, and a cover for greater malversation, than in 割合 even to that 増加する of fortune. The 行為／行う of their servants in India, and the general 明言する／公表する of their 事件／事情／状勢s both in India and in Europe, became the 支配する of a 議会の 調査, in consequence of which several very important alternations were made in the 憲法 of their 政府, both at home and abroad. In India their 主要な／長／主犯 解決／入植地s of マドラス, Bombay, and Calcutta, which had before been altogether 独立した・無所属 of one another, were 支配するd to a 知事-general, 補助装置d by a 会議 of four assessors, 議会 assuming to itself the first 指名／任命 of this 知事 and 会議 who were to reside at Calcutta; that city having now become, what マドラス was before, the most important of the English 解決／入植地s in India. The 法廷，裁判所 of the 市長 of Calcutta, 初めは 学校／設けるd for the 裁判，公判 of 商業の 原因（となる）s which arose in city and neighbourhood, had 徐々に 延長するd its 裁判権 with the 拡張 of the empire. It was now 減ずるd and 限定するd to the 初めの 目的 of its 会・原則. Instead of it a new 最高の 法廷，裁判所 of judicature was 設立するd, consisting of a 裁判長 and three 裁判官s to be 任命するd by the 栄冠を与える. In Europe, the 資格 necessary to する権利を与える a proprietor to 投票（する） at their general 法廷，裁判所s was raised from five hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs, the 初めの price of a 株 in the 在庫／株 of the company, to a thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs. ーするために 投票（する） upon this 資格 too, it was 宣言するd necessary that he should have 所有するd it, if acquired by his own 購入（する）, and not by 相続物件, for at least one year, instead of six months, the 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 requisite before. The 法廷，裁判所 of twenty-four directors had before been chosen 毎年; but it was now 制定するd that each director should, for the 未来, be chosen for four years; six of them, however, to go out of office by rotation every year, and not to be 有能な of 存在 re-chosen at the 選挙 of the six new directors for the 続いて起こるing year. In consequence of these alterations, the 法廷，裁判所s, both of the proprietors and directors, it was 推定する／予想するd, would be likely to 行為／法令／行動する with more dignity and steadiness than they had usually done before. But it seems impossible, by any alterations, to （判決などを）下す those 法廷，裁判所s, in any 尊敬（する）・点, fit to 治める／統治する, or even to 株 in the 政府 of a 広大な／多数の／重要な empire; because the greater part of their members must always have too little 利益／興味 in the 繁栄 of that empire to give any serious attention to what may 促進する it. Frequently a man of 広大な／多数の／重要な, いつかs even a man of small fortune, is willing to 購入（する） a thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs' 株 in India 在庫／株 単に for the 影響（力） which he 推定する／予想するs to acquire by a 投票（する） in the 法廷，裁判所 of proprietors. It gives him a 株, though not in the plunder, yet in the 任命 of the plunderers of India; the 法廷，裁判所 of directors, though they make that 任命, 存在 やむを得ず more or いっそう少なく under the 影響（力） of the proprietors, who not only elect those directors, but いつかs overrule the 任命s of their servants in India. 供給するd he can enjoy this 影響（力） for a few years, and その為に 供給する f or a 確かな number of his friends, he frequently cares little about the （株主への）配当, or even about the value of the 在庫／株 upon which his 投票（する） is 設立するd. About the 繁栄 of the 広大な／多数の／重要な empire, in the 政府 of which that 投票（する） gives him a 株, he seldom cares at all. No other 君主s ever were, or, from the nature of things, ever could be, so perfectly indifferent about the happiness or 悲惨 of their 支配するs, the 改良 or waste of their dominions, the glory or 不名誉 of their 行政, as, from irresistible moral 原因（となる）s, the greater part of the proprietors of such a 商業の company are, and やむを得ず must be. This 無関心／冷淡, too, was more likely to be 増加するd than 減らすd by some of the new 規則s which were made in consequence of the 議会の 調査. By a 決意／決議 of the House of ありふれたs, for example, it was 宣言するd, that when the fourteen hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs lent to the company by 政府 should be paid, and their 社債-負債s be 減ずるd to fifteen hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs, they might then, and not till then, divide eight per cent upon their 資本／首都; and that whatever remained of their 歳入s and 逮捕する 利益（をあげる）s at home should be divided into four parts; three of them to be paid into the exchequer for the use of the public, and the fourth to be reserved as a 基金 either for the その上の 削減 of their 社債-負債s, or for the 発射する／解雇する of other 次第で変わる／派遣部隊 exigencies which the company might 労働 under. But if the company were bad stewards, and bad 君主s, when the whole of their 逮捕する 歳入 and 利益（をあげる）s belonged to themselves, and were at their own 処分, they were surely not likely to be better when three-fourths of them were to belong to other people, and the other fourth, though to be laid out for the 利益 of the company, yet to be so under the 査察 and with the approbation of other people.

It might be more agreeable to the company that their own servants and dependants should have either the 楽しみ of wasting or the 利益（をあげる） of embezzling whatever 黒字／過剰 might remain after 支払う／賃金ing the 提案するd （株主への）配当 of eight per cent than that it should come into the 手渡すs of a 始める，決める of people with whom those 決意／決議s could 不十分な fail to 始める，決める them, in some 手段, at variance. The 利益／興味 of those servants and dependants might so far predominate in the 法廷，裁判所 of proprietors as いつかs to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる it to support the authors of depredations which had been committed in direct 違反 of its own 当局. With the 大多数 of proprietors, the support even of the 当局 of their own 法廷，裁判所 might いつかs be a 事柄 of いっそう少なく consequence than the support of those who had 始める，決める that 当局 at 反抗.

The 規則s of 1773, accordingly, did not put an end to the disorders of the company's 政府 in India. Notwithstanding that, during a momentary fit of good 行為／行う, they had at one time collected into the 財務省 of Calcutta more than three millions 英貨の／純銀の; notwithstanding that they had afterwards 延長するd, either their dominion, or their depredations, over a 広大な 即位 of some of the richest and most fertile countries in India, all was wasted and destroyed. They 設立する themselves altogether unprepared to stop or resist the 急襲 of Hyder Ali; and, in consequence of those disorders, the company is now (1784) in greater 苦しめる than ever; and, ーするために 妨げる 即座の 破産, is once more 減ずるd to supplicate the 援助 of 政府. Different 計画（する）s have been 提案するd by the different parties in 議会 for the better 管理／経営 of its 事件／事情／状勢s. And all those 計画（する）s seem to agree insupposing, what was indeed always abundantly evident, that it is altogether unfit to 治める／統治する its 領土の 所有／入手s. Even the company itself seems to be 納得させるd of its own incapacity so far, and seems, upon that account, willing to give them up to 政府.

With the 権利 of 所有するing forts and 守備隊s in distant and barbarous countries is やむを得ず connected the 権利 of making peace and war in those countries. The 共同の 在庫／株 companies which have had the one 権利 have 絶えず 演習d the other, and have frequently had it expressly conferred upon them. How 不正に, how capriciously, how cruelly they have 一般的に 演習d it, is too 井戸／弁護士席 known from 最近の experience.

When a company of merchants 請け負う, at their own 危険 and expense, to 設立する a new 貿易（する） with some remote and barbarous nation, it may not be 不当な to 会社にする／組み込む them into a 共同の 在庫／株 company, and to 認める them, in 事例／患者 of their success, a monopoly of the 貿易（する） for a 確かな number of years. It is the easiest and most natural way in which the 明言する／公表する can recompense them for hazarding a dangerous and expensive 実験, of which the public is afterwards to 得る the 利益. A 一時的な monopoly of this 肉親，親類d may be vindicated upon the same 原則s upon which a like monopoly of a new machine is 認めるd to its inventor, and that of a new 調書をとる／予約する to its author. But upon the 満期 of the 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語, the monopoly ought certainly to 決定する; the forts and 守備隊s, if it was 設立する necessary to 設立する any, to be taken into the 手渡すs of 政府, their value to be paid to the company, and the 貿易（する） to be laid open to all the 支配するs of the 明言する／公表する. By a perpetual monopoly, all the other 支配するs of the 明言する／公表する are 税金d very absurdly in two different ways: first, by the high price of goods, which, in the 事例／患者 of a 自由貿易, they could buy much cheaper; and, secondly, by their total 除外 from a 支店 of 商売／仕事 which it might be both convenient and profitable for many of them to carry on. It is for the most worthless of all 目的s, too, that they are 税金d in this manner. It is 単に to enable the company to support the 怠慢，過失, profusion, and malversation of their own servants, whose disorderly 行為／行う seldom 許すs the （株主への）配当 of the company to 越える the ordinary 率 of 利益（をあげる） in 貿易（する）s which are altogether 解放する／自由な, and very frequently makes it 落ちる even a good 取引，協定 short of that 率. Without a monopoly, however, a 共同の 在庫／株 company, it would appear from experience, cannot long carry on any 支店 of foreign 貿易（する）. To buy in one market, ーするために sell, with 利益（をあげる）, in another, when there are many competitors in both, to watch over, not only the 時折の variations in the 需要・要求する, but the much greater and more たびたび（訪れる） variations in the 競争, or in the 供給（する） which that 需要・要求する is likely to get from other people, and to 控訴 with dexterity and judgment both the 量 and 質 of each assortment of goods to all these circumstances, is a 種類 of 戦争 of which the 操作／手術s are continually changing, and which can 不十分な ever be 行為／行うd 首尾よく without such an unremitting exertion of vigilance and attention as cannot long be 推定する／予想するd from the directors of a 共同の 在庫／株 company. The East India Company, upon the redemption of their 基金s, and the 満期 of their 排除的 特権, have 権利, by 行為／法令／行動する of 議会, to continue a 会社／団体 with a 共同の 在庫／株, and to 貿易（する） in their 法人組織の／企業の capacity to the East Indies in ありふれた with the 残り／休憩（する） of their fellow-支配するs. But in this 状況／情勢, the superior vigilance and attention of 私的な adventurers would, in all probability, soon make them 疲れた／うんざりした of the 貿易（する）.

An 著名な French author, of 広大な／多数の／重要な knowledge in 事柄s of political economy, the Abbe Morellet, gives a 名簿（に載せる）／表（にあげる） of fifty-five 共同の 在庫／株 companies for foreign 貿易（する） which have been 設立するd in different parts of Europe since the year 1600, and which, によれば him, have all failed from mismanagement, notwithstanding they had 排除的 特権s. He has been misinformed with regard to the history of two or three of them, which were not 共同の 在庫／株 companies and have not failed. But, in 補償（金）, there have been several 共同の 在庫／株 companies which have failed, and which he has omitted.

The only 貿易（する）s which it seems possible for a 共同の 在庫／株 company to carry on 首尾よく without an 排除的 特権 are those of which all the 操作／手術s are 有能な of 存在 減ずるd to what is called a 決まりきった仕事, or to such a uniformity of method as 収容する／認めるs of little or no variation. Of this 肉親，親類d is, first, the banking 貿易（する）; secondly, the 貿易（する） of 保険 from 解雇する／砲火／射撃, and from sea 危険 and 逮捕（する） in time of war; thirdly, the 貿易（する） of making and 持続するing a navigable 削減（する） or canal; and, fourthly, the 類似の 貿易（する） of bringing water for the 供給（する） of a 広大な／多数の／重要な city.

Though the 原則s of the banking 貿易（する） may appear somewhat abstruse, the practice is 有能な of 存在 減ずるd to strict 支配するs. To 出発／死 upon any occasion from those 支配するs, in consequence of some flattering 憶測 of 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 伸び（る）, is almost always 極端に dangerous, and frequently 致命的な, to the banking company which 試みる／企てるs it. But the 憲法 of 共同の 在庫／株 companies （判決などを）下すs them in general more tenacious of 設立するd 支配するs than any 私的な copartnery. Such companies, therefore, seem 極端に 井戸／弁護士席 fitted for this 貿易（する）. The 主要な／長／主犯 banking companies in Europe, accordingly, are 共同の 在庫／株 companies, many of which manage their 貿易（する） very 首尾よく without any 排除的 特権. The Bank of England has no other 排除的 特権 except that no other banking company in England shall consist of more than six persons. The two banks of Edinburgh are 共同の 在庫／株 companies without any 排除的 特権.

The value of the 危険, either from 解雇する／砲火／射撃, or from loss by sea, or by 逮捕（する）, though it cannot, perhaps, be calculated very 正確に／まさに, 収容する／認めるs, however, of such a 甚だしい／１２ダース estimation as （判決などを）下すs it, in some degree, reducible to strict 支配する and method. The 貿易（する） of 保険, therefore, may be carried on 首尾よく by a 共同の 在庫／株 company without any 排除的 特権. Neither the London 保証／確信 nor the 王室の 交流 保証／確信 companies have any such 特権.

When a navigable 削減（する） or canal has been once made, the 管理／経営 of it becomes やめる simple and 平易な, and it is reducible to strict 支配する and method. Even the making of it is so as it may be 契約d for with undertakers at so much a mile, and so much a lock. The same thing may be said of a canal, an aqueduct, or a 広大な／多数の／重要な 麻薬を吸う for bringing water to 供給（する） a 広大な／多数の／重要な city. Such undertakings, therefore, may be, and accordingly frequently are, very 首尾よく managed by 共同の 在庫／株 companies without any 排除的 特権.

To 設立する a 共同の 在庫／株 company, however, for any 請け負うing, 単に because such a company might be 有能な of managing it 首尾よく; or to 免除された a particular 始める，決める of 売買業者s from some of the general 法律s which take place with regard to all their 隣人s, 単に because they might be 有能な of 栄えるing if they had such an 控除, would certainly not be reasonable. To （判決などを）下す such an 設立 perfectly reasonable, with the circumstance of 存在 reducible to strict 支配する and method, two other circumstances せねばならない 同意する. First, it せねばならない appear with the clearest 証拠 that the 請け負うing is of greater and more general 公共事業（料金）／有用性 than the greater part of ありふれた 貿易（する）s; and secondly, that it 要求するs a greater 資本／首都 than can easily be collected into a 私的な copartnery. If a 穏健な 資本／首都 were 十分な, the 広大な／多数の／重要な 公共事業（料金）／有用性 of the 請け負うing would not be a 十分な 推論する／理由 for 設立するing a 共同の 在庫／株 company; because, in this 事例／患者, the 需要・要求する for what it was to produce would readily and easily be 供給（する）d by 私的な adventures. In the four 貿易（する）s above について言及するd, both those circumstances 同意する.

The 広大な／多数の／重要な and general 公共事業（料金）／有用性 of the banking 貿易（する） when prudently managed has been fully explained in the second, 調書をとる／予約する of this 調査. But a public bank which is to support public credit, and upon particular 緊急s to 前進する to 政府 the whole produce of a 税金, to the 量, perhaps, of several millions, a year or two before it comes in, 要求するs a greater 資本／首都 than can easily be collected into any 私的な copartnery.

The 貿易（する） of 保険 gives 広大な／多数の／重要な 安全 to the fortunes of 私的な people, and by dividing の中で a 広大な／多数の／重要な many that loss which would 廃虚 an individual, makes it 落ちる light and 平易な upon the whole society. ーするために give this 安全, however, it is necessary that the 保険会社s should have a very large 資本／首都. Before the 設立 of the two 共同の 在庫／株 companies for 保険 in London, a 名簿（に載せる）／表（にあげる）, it is said, was laid before the 弁護士／代理人／検事-general of one hundred and fifty 私的な 保険会社s who had failed in the course of a few years.

That navigable 削減（する）s and canals, and the 作品 which are いつかs necessary for 供給（する）ing a 広大な／多数の／重要な city with water, are of 広大な／多数の／重要な and general 公共事業（料金）／有用性, while at the same time they frequently 要求する a greater expense than 控訴s the fortunes of 私的な people, is 十分に obvious.

Except the four 貿易（する）s above について言及するd, I have not been able to recollect any other in which all the three circumstances requisite for （判決などを）下すing reasonable the 設立 of a 共同の 在庫／株 company 同意する. The English 巡査 company of London, the lead smelting company, the glass grinding company, have not even the pretext of any 広大な／多数の／重要な or singular 公共事業（料金）／有用性 in the 反対する which they 追求する; nor does the 追跡 of that 反対する seem to 要求する any expense unsuitable to the fortunes of many 私的な men. Whether the 貿易（する） which those companies carry on is reducible to such strict 支配する and method as to （判決などを）下す it fit for the 管理／経営 of a 共同の 在庫／株 company, or whether they have any 推論する／理由 to 誇る of their 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 利益（をあげる）s, I do not pretend to know. The 地雷-adventurers' company has been long ago 破産者／倒産した. A 株 in the 在庫／株 of the British Linen Company of Edinburgh sells, at 現在の, very much below par, though いっそう少なく so that it did some years ago. The 共同の 在庫／株 companies which are 設立するd for the public-spirited 目的 of 促進するing some particular 製造（する）, over and above managing their own 事件／事情／状勢s ill, to the dimunition of the general 在庫／株 of the society, can in other 尊敬（する）・点s 不十分な ever fail to do more 害（を与える） than good. Notwithstanding the most upright 意向s, the 避けられない partiality of their directors to particular 支店s of the 製造（する） of which the undertakers 誤って導く and 課す upon them is a real discouragement to the 残り／休憩（する）, and やむを得ず breaks, more or いっそう少なく, that natural 割合 which would さもなければ 設立する itself between judicious 産業 and 利益（をあげる）, and which, to the general 産業 of the country, is of all 激励s the greatest and the most effectual.

Article II: Of the Expense of the 会・原則s for the Education of 青年

Even where the reward of the master does not arise altogether from this natural 歳入, it still is not necessary that it should be derived from that general 歳入 of the society, of which the collection and 使用／適用 is, in most countries, 割り当てるd to the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする. Through the greater part of Europe, accordingly, the endowment of schools and colleges makes either no 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金 upon that general 歳入, or but a very small one. It everywhere arises 主として from some 地元の or 地方の 歳入, from the rent of some landed 広い地所, or from the 利益／興味 of some sum of money allotted and put under the 管理／経営 of trustees for this particular 目的, いつかs by the 君主 himself, and いつかs by some 私的な 寄贈者.

Have those public endowments 与える／捧げるd in general to 促進する the end of their 会・原則? Have they 与える／捧げるd to encourage the diligence and to 改善する the abilities of the teachers? Have they directed the course of education に向かって 反対するs more useful, both to the individual and to the public, than those to which it would 自然に have gone of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える? It should not seem very difficult to give at least a probable answer to each of those questions.

In every profession, the exertion of the greater part of those who 演習 it is always in 割合 to the necessity they are under of making that exertion. This necessity is greatest with those to whom the emoluments of their profession are the only source from which they 推定する／予想する their fortune, or even their ordinary 歳入 and subsistence. ーするために acquire this fortune, or even to get this subsistence, they must, in the course of a year, 遂行する／発効させる a 確かな 量 of work of a known value; and, where the 競争 is 解放する／自由な, the rivalship of competitors, who are all endeavouring to justle one another out of 雇用, 強いるs every man to endeavour to 遂行する／発効させる his work with a 確かな degree of exactness. The greatness of the 反対するs which are to be acquired by success in some particular professions may, no 疑問, いつかs animate the exertion of a few men of 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の spirit and ambition. 広大な／多数の／重要な 反対するs, however, are evidently not necessary ーするために occasion the greatest exertions. Rivalship and emulation （判決などを）下す excellency, even in mean professions, an 反対する of ambition, and frequently occasion the very greatest exertions. 広大な／多数の／重要な 反対するs, on the contrary, alone and unsupported by the necessity of 使用／適用, have seldom been 十分な to occasion any かなりの exertion. In England, success in the profession of the 法律 leads to some very 広大な／多数の／重要な 反対するs of ambition; and yet how few men, born to 平易な fortunes, have ever in this country been 著名な in that profession!

The endowments of schools and colleges have やむを得ず 減らすd more or いっそう少なく the necessity of 使用／適用 in the teachers. Their subsistence, so far as it arises from their salaries, is evidently derived from a 基金 altogether 独立した・無所属 of their success and 評判 in their particular professions.

In some universities the salary makes but a part, and frequently but a small part, of the emoluments of the teacher, of which the greater part arises from the 名誉として与えられるs or 料金s of his pupils. The necessity of 使用／適用, though always more or いっそう少なく 減らすd, is not in this 事例／患者 完全に taken away. 評判 in his profession is still of some importance to him, and he still has some dependency upon the affection, 感謝, and favourable 報告（する）／憶測 of those who have …に出席するd upon his 指示／教授／教育s; and these favourable 感情s he is likely to 伸び（る） in no way so 井戸／弁護士席 as by deserving them, that is, by the abilities and diligence with which he 発射する／解雇するs every part of his 義務.

In other universities the teacher is 禁じるd from receiving any 名誉として与えられる or 料金 from his pupils, and his salary 構成するs the whole of the 歳入 which he derives from his office. His 利益／興味 is, in this 事例／患者, 始める，決める as 直接／まっすぐに in 対立 to his 義務 as it is possible to 始める，決める it. It is the 利益／興味 of every man to live as much at his 緩和する as he can; and if his emoluments are to be 正確に the same, whether he does or does not 成し遂げる some very laborious 義務, it is certainly his 利益／興味, at least as 利益／興味 is vulgarly understood, either to neglect it altogether, or, if he is 支配する to some 当局 which will not 苦しむ him to do this, to 成し遂げる it in as careless and slovenly a manner as that 当局 will 許す. If he is 自然に active and a lover of 労働, it is his 利益／興味 to 雇う that activity in any way from which he can derive some advantage, rather than in the 業績／成果 of his 義務, from which he can derive 非，不，無.

If the 当局 to which he is 支配する resides in the 団体／死体 法人組織の／企業の, the college, or university, of which he himself is a member, and which the greater part of the other members are, like himself, persons who either are or せねばならない be teachers, they are likely to make a ありふれた 原因（となる）, to be all very indulgent to one another, and every man to 同意 that his 隣人 may neglect his 義務, 供給するd he himself is 許すd to neglect his own. In the university of Oxford, the greater part of the public professors have, for these many years, given up altogether even the pretence of teaching.

If the 当局 to which he is 支配する resides, not so much in the 団体／死体 法人組織の／企業の of which he is a member, as in some other extraneous persons- in the bishop of the diocese, for example; in the 知事 of the 州; or, perhaps, in some 大臣 of 明言する／公表する it is not indeed in this 事例／患者 very likely that he will be 苦しむd to neglect his 義務 altogether. All that such superiors, however, can 軍隊 him to do, is to …に出席する upon his pupils a 確かな number of hours, that is, to give a 確かな number of lectures in the week or in the year. What those lectures shall be must still depend upon the diligence of the teacher; and that diligence is likely to be 割合d to the 動機s which he has for 発揮するing it. An extraneous 裁判権 of this 肉親，親類d, besides, is liable to be 演習d both ignorantly and capriciously. In its nature it is 独断的な and discretionary, and the persons who 演習 it, neither …に出席するing upon the lectures of the teacher themselves, nor perhaps understanding the sciences which it is his 商売／仕事 to teach, are seldom 有能な of 演習ing it with judgment. From the insolence of office, too, they are frequently indifferent how they 演習 it, and are very apt to 非難 or 奪う him of his office wantonly, and without any just 原因（となる）. The person 支配する to such 裁判権 is やむを得ず degraded by it, and, instead of 存在 one of the most respectable, is （判決などを）下すd one of the meanest and most contemptible persons in the society. It is by powerful 保護 only that he can effectually guard himself against the bad usage to which he is at all times exposed; and this 保護 he is most likely to 伸び（る）, not by ability or diligence in his profession, but by obsequiousness to the will of his superiors, and by 存在 ready, at all times, to sacrifice to that will the 権利s, the 利益／興味, and the honour of the 団体／死体 法人組織の／企業の of which he is a member. Whoever has …に出席するd for any かなりの time to the 行政 of a French university must have had occasion to 発言／述べる the 影響s whi ch 自然に result from an 独断的な and extraneous 裁判権 of this 肉親，親類d.

Whatever 軍隊s a 確かな number of students to any college or university, 独立した・無所属 of the 長所 or 評判 of the teachers, tends more or いっそう少なく to 減らす the necessity of that 長所 or 評判.

The 特権s of 卒業生（する）s in arts, in 法律, physic, and divinity, when they can be 得るd only by residing a 確かな number of years in 確かな universities, やむを得ず 軍隊 a 確かな number of students to such universities, 独立した・無所属 of the 長所 or 評判 of the teachers. The 特権s of 卒業生（する）s are a sort of 法令s of 見習いの身分制度, which have 与える／捧げるd to the 改良 of education, just as the other 法令s of 見習いの身分制度 have to that of arts, and 製造（する）s.

The charitable 創立／基礎s of scholarships, 展示s, bursaries, etc., やむを得ず attach a 確かな number of students to 確かな colleges, 独立した・無所属 altogether of the 長所 of those particular colleges. Were the students upon such charitable 創立／基礎s left 解放する／自由な to choose what college they liked best, such liberty might perhaps 与える／捧げる to excite some emulation の中で different colleges. A 規則, on the contrary, which 禁じるd even the 独立した・無所属 members of every particular college from leaving it and going to any other, without leave first asked and 得るd of that which they meant to abandon, would tend very much to 消滅させる that emulation.

If in each college the 教える or teacher, who was to 教える each student in all arts and sciences, should not be 任意に chosen by the student, but 任命するd by the 長，率いる of the college; and if, in 事例／患者 of neglect, 無（不）能, or bad usage, the student should not be 許すd to change him for another, without leave first asked and 得るd, such a 規則 would not only tend very much to 消滅させる all emulation の中で the different 教えるs of the same college, but to 減らす very much in all of them the necessity of diligence and of attention to their 各々の pupils. Such teachers, though very 井戸／弁護士席 paid by their students, might be as much 性質の／したい気がして to neglect them as those who are not paid by them at all, or who have no other recompense but their salary.

If the teacher happens to be a man of sense, it must be an unpleasant thing to him to be conscious, while he is lecturing his students, that he is either speaking or reading nonsense, or what is very little better than nonsense. It must, too, be unpleasant to him to 観察する that the greater part of his students 砂漠 his lectures, or perhaps …に出席する upon them with plain enough 示すs of neglect, contempt, and derision. If he is 強いるd, therefore, to give a 確かな number of lectures, these 動機s alone, without any other 利益／興味, might 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる him to take some 苦痛s to give tolerably good ones. Several different expedients, however, may be fallen upon which will effectually blunt the 辛勝する／優位 of all those incitements to diligence. The teacher, instead of explaining to his pupils himself the science in which he 提案するs to 教える them, may read some 調書をとる／予約する upon it; and if this 調書をとる／予約する is written in a foreign and dead language, by 解釈する／通訳するing it to them into their own; or, what would give him still いっそう少なく trouble, by making them 解釈する／通訳する it to him, and by now and then making an 時折の 発言／述べる upon it, he may flatter himself that he is giving a lecture. The slightest degree of knowledge and 使用／適用 will enable him to do this without exposing himself to contempt or derision, or 説 anything that is really foolish, absurd, or ridiculous. The discipline of the college, at the same time, may enable him to 軍隊 all his pupils to the most 正規の／正選手 出席 upon this sham lecture, and to 持続する the most decent and respectful behaviour during the whole time of the 業績／成果.

The discipline of colleges and universities is in general contrived, not for the 利益 of the students, but for the 利益／興味, or more 適切に speaking, for the 緩和する of the masters. Its 反対する is, in all 事例／患者s, to 持続する the 当局 of the master, and whether he neglects or 成し遂げるs his 義務, to 強いる the students in all 事例／患者s to behave to him, as if he 成し遂げるd it with the greatest diligence and ability. It seems to 推定する perfect 知恵 and virtue in the one order, and the greatest 証拠不十分 and folly in the other. Where the masters, however, really 成し遂げる their 義務, there are no examples, I believe, that the greater part of the students ever neglect theirs. No discipline is ever requisite to 軍隊 出席 upon lectures which are really 価値（がある） the …に出席するing, as is 井戸／弁護士席 known wherever any such lectures are given. 軍隊 and 抑制 may, no 疑問, be in some degree requisite ーするために 強いる children, or very young boys, to …に出席する to those parts of education which it is thought necessary for them to acquire during that 早期に period of life; but after twelve or thirteen years of age, 供給するd the master does his 義務, 軍隊 or 抑制 can 不十分な ever be necessary to carry on any part of education. Such is the generosity of the greater part of young men, that, so far from 存在 性質の／したい気がして to neglect or despise the 指示／教授／教育s of their master, 供給するd he shows some serious 意向 of 存在 of use to them, they are 一般に inclined to 容赦 a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 of incorrectness in the 業績／成果 of his 義務, and いつかs even to 隠す from the public a good 取引，協定 of 重過失.

Those parts of education, it is to be 観察するd, for the teaching of which there are no public 会・原則s, are 一般に the best taught. When a young man goes to a 盗品故買者ing or a dancing school, he does not indeed always learn to 盗品故買者 or to dance very 井戸／弁護士席; but he seldom fails of learning to 盗品故買者 or to dance. The good 影響s of the riding school are not 一般的に so evident. The expense of a riding school is so 広大な／多数の／重要な, that in most places it is a public 会・原則. The three most 必須の parts of literary education, to read, 令状, and account, it still continues to be more ありふれた to acquire in 私的な than in public schools; and it very seldom happens that anybody fails of acquiring them to the degree in which it is necessary to acquire them.

In England the public schools are much いっそう少なく corrupted than the universities. In the schools the 青年 are taught, or at least may be taught, Greek and Latin; that is, everything which the masters pretend to teach, or which, it is 推定する／予想するd, they should teach. In the universities the 青年 neither are taught, nor always can find any proper means of 存在 taught, the sciences which it is the 商売／仕事 of those 会社にする／組み込むd 団体／死体s to teach. The reward of the schoolmaster in most 事例／患者s depends principally, in some 事例／患者s almost 完全に, upon the 料金s or 名誉として与えられるs of his scholars. Schools have no 排除的 特権s. ーするために 得る the honours of 卒業, it is not necessary that a person should bring a 証明書 of his having 熟考する／考慮するd a 確かな number of years at a public school. If upon examination he appears to understand what is taught there, no questions are asked about the place where he learnt it.

The parts of education which are 一般的に taught in universities, it may, perhaps, be said are not very 井戸／弁護士席 taught. But had it not been for those 会・原則s they would not have been 一般的に taught at all, and both the individual and the public would have 苦しむd a good 取引，協定 from the want of those important parts of education.

The 現在の universities of Europe were 初めは, the greater part of them, ecclesiastical 会社／団体s, 学校／設けるd for the education of churchmen. They were 設立するd by the 当局 of the ローマ法王, and were so 完全に under his 即座の 保護, that their members, whether masters or students, had all of them what was then called the 利益 of clergy, that is, were 免除されたd from the civil 裁判権 of the countries in which their 各々の universities were 据えるd, and were amenable only to the ecclesiastical 法廷s. What was taught in the greater part of those universities was suitable to the end of their 会・原則, either theology, or something that was 単に 準備の to theology.

When Christianity was first 設立するd by 法律, a corrupted Latin had become the ありふれた language of all the western parts of Europe. The service of the church accordingly, and the translation of the Bible which was read in churches, were both in that corrupted Latin; that is, in the ありふれた language of the country. After the irruption of the barbarous nations who overturned the Roman empire, Latin 徐々に 中止するd to be the language of any part of Europe. But the reverence of the people 自然に 保存するs the 設立するd forms and 儀式s of 宗教 long after the circumstances which first introduced and （判決などを）下すd them reasonable are no more. Though Latin, therefore, was no longer understood anywhere by the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, the whole service of the church still continued to be 成し遂げるd in that language. Two different languages were thus 設立するd in Europe, in the same manner as in 古代の Egypt; a language of the priests, and a language of the people; a sacred and a profane; a learned and an unlearned language. But it was necessary that the priests should understand something of that sacred and learned language in which they were to officiate; and the 熟考する／考慮する of the Latin language therefore made, from the beginning, an 必須の part of university education.

It was not so with that either of the Greek or of the Hebrew language. The infallible 法令s of the church had pronounced the Latin translation of the Bible, 一般的に called the Latin Vulgate, to have been 平等に dictated by divine inspiration, and therefore of equal 当局 with the Greek and Hebrew 初めのs. The knowledge of those two languages, therefore, not 存在 indispensably requisite to a churchman, the 熟考する／考慮する of them did not for a long time make a necessary part of the ありふれた course of university education. There are some Spanish universities, I am 保証するd, in which the 熟考する／考慮する of the Greek language has never yet made any part of that course. The first 改革者s 設立する the Greek text of the New Testament, and even the Hebrew text of the Old, more 都合のよい to their opinions than the Vulgate translation, which, as might 自然に be supposed, had been 徐々に 融通するd to support the doctrines of the カトリック教徒 Church. They 始める，決める themselves, therefore, to expose the many errors of that translation, which the Roman カトリック教徒 clergy were thus put under the necessity of defending or explaining. But this could not 井戸／弁護士席 be done without some knowledge of the 初めの languages, of which the 熟考する／考慮する was therefore 徐々に introduced into the greater part of universities, both of those which embraced, and of those which 拒絶するd, the doctrines of the Reformation. The Greek language was connected with every part of that classical learning which, though at first principally cultivated by カトリック教徒s and Italians, happened to come into fashion much about the same time that the doctrines of the Reformation were 始める，決める on foot. In the greater part of universities, therefore, that language was taught previous to the 熟考する／考慮する of philosophy, and as soon as the student had made some 進歩 in the Latin. The Hebrew language having no 関係 with classical learning, and, except the 宗教上の Scriptures, 存在 the language of not a 選び出す／独身 調書をとる／予約する in any esteem, the 熟考する／考慮する of it did not 一般的に 開始する till after that of philosophy, and when the student had entered upon the 熟考する／考慮する of theology.

初めは the first rudiments both of the Greek and Latin languages were taught in universities, and in some universities they still continue to be so. In others it is 推定する／予想するd that the student should have 以前 acquired at least the rudiments of one or both of those languages, of which the 熟考する／考慮する continues to make everywhere a very かなりの part of university education.

The 古代の Greek philosophy was divided into three 広大な／多数の／重要な 支店s; physics, or natural philosophy; 倫理学, or moral philosophy; and logic. This general 分割 seems perfectly agreeable to the nature of things.

The 広大な／多数の／重要な phenomena of nature- the 革命s of the heavenly 団体／死体s, （太陽，月の）食／失墜s, 惑星s; 雷鳴, 雷, and other 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の meteors; the 世代, the life, growth, and 解散 of 工場／植物s and animals- are 反対するs which, as they やむを得ず excite the wonder, so they 自然に call 前へ／外へ the curiosity, of mankind to 問い合わせ into their 原因（となる）s. Superstition first 試みる／企てるd to 満足させる this curiosity, by referring all those wonderful 外見s to the 即座の 機関 of the gods. Philosophy afterwards endeavoured to account for them from more familiar 原因（となる）s, or from such as mankind were better 熟知させるd with, than the 機関 of the gods. As those 広大な／多数の／重要な phenomena are the first 反対するs of human curiosity, so the science which pretends to explain them must 自然に have been the first 支店 of philosophy that was cultivated. The first philosophers, accordingly, of whom history has 保存するd any account, appear to have been natural philosophers.

In every age and country of the world men must have …に出席するd to the characters, designs, and 活動／戦闘s of one another, and many reputable 支配するs and maxims for the 行為／行う of human life must have been laid 負かす／撃墜する and 認可するd of by ありふれた 同意. As soon as 令状ing （機の）カム into fashion, wise men, or those who fancied themselves such, would 自然に endeavour to 増加する the number of those 設立するd and 尊敬（する）・点d maxims, and to 表明する their own sense of what was either proper or 妥当でない 行為／行う, いつかs in the more 人工的な form of apologues, like what are called the fables of Aesop; and いつかs in the more simple one of apophthegms, or wise 説s, like the Proverbs of Solomon, the 詩（を作る）s of Theognis and Phocyllides, and some part of the 作品 of Hesiod. They might continue in this manner for a long time 単に to multiply the number of those maxims of prudence and morality, without even 試みる／企てるing to arrange them in any very 際立った or methodical order, much いっそう少なく to connect them together by one or more general 原則s from which they were all deducible, like 影響s from their natural 原因（となる）s. The beauty of a systematical 協定 of different 観察s connected by a few ありふれた 原則s was first seen in the rude essays of those 古代の times に向かって a system of natural philosophy. Something of the same 肉親，親類d was afterwards 試みる／企てるd in morals. The maxims of ありふれた life were arranged in some methodical order, and connected together by a few ありふれた 原則s, in the same manner as they had 試みる／企てるd to arrange and connect the phenomena of nature. The science which pretends to 調査／捜査する and explain those connecting 原則s is what is 適切に called moral philosophy.

Different authors gave different systems both of natural and moral philosophy. But the arguments by which they supported those different systems, for from 存在 always demonstrations, were frequently at best but very slender probabilities, and いつかs mere sophisms, which had no other 創立／基礎 but the inaccuracy and ambiguity of ありふれた language. 思索的な systems have in all ages of the world been 可決する・採択するd for 推論する／理由s too frivolous to have 決定するd the judgment of any man of ありふれた sense in a 事柄 of the smallest pecuniary 利益／興味. 甚だしい／１２ダース sophistry has 不十分な ever had any 影響（力） upon the opinions of mankind, except in 事柄s of philosophy and 憶測; and in these it has frequently had the greatest. The patrons of each system of natural and moral philosophy 自然に endeavoured to expose the 証拠不十分 of the arguments adduced to support the systems which were opposite to their own. In 診察するing those arguments, they were やむを得ず led to consider the difference between a probable and a demonstrative argument, between a fallacious and a conclusive one: and Logic, or the science of the general 原則s of good and bad 推論する／理由ing, やむを得ず arose out of the 観察s which a scrutiny of this 肉親，親類d gave occasion to. Though in its origin posterior both to physics and to 倫理学, it was 一般的に taught, not indeed in all, but in the greater part of the 古代の schools of philosophy, 以前 to either of those sciences. The student, it seems to have been thought, to understand 井戸／弁護士席 the difference between good and bad 推論する／理由ing before he was led to 推論する／理由 upon 支配するs of so 広大な／多数の／重要な importance.

This 古代の 分割 of philosophy into three parts was in the greater part of the universities of Europe changed for another into five.

In the 古代の philosophy, whatever was taught 関心ing the nature either of the human mind or of the Deity, made a part of the system of physics. Those 存在s, in whatever their essence might be supposed to consist, were parts of the 広大な／多数の／重要な system of the universe, and parts, too, 生産力のある of the most important 影響s. Whatever human 推論する／理由 could either 結論する or conjecture 関心ing them, made, as it were, two 一時期／支部s, though no 疑問 two very important ones, of the science which pretended to give an account of the origin and 革命s of the 広大な／多数の／重要な system of the universe. But in the universities of Europe, where philosophy was taught only as subservient to theology, it was natural to dwell longer upon these two 一時期／支部s than upon any other of the science. They were 徐々に more and more 延長するd, and were divided into many inferior 一時期／支部s, till at last the doctrine of spirits, of which so little can be known, （機の）カム to （問題を）取り上げる as much room in the system of philosophy as the doctrine of 団体／死体s, of which so much can be known. The doctrines 関心ing those two 支配するs were considered as making two 際立った sciences. What are called Metaphysics or Pneumatics were 始める，決める in 対立 to Physics, and were cultivated not only as the more sublime, but, for the 目的s of a particular profession, as the more useful science of the two. The proper 支配する of 実験 and 観察, a 支配する in which a careful attention is 有能な of making so many useful 発見s, was almost 完全に neglected. The 支配する in which, after a few very simple and almost obvious truths, the most careful attention can discover nothing but obscurity and 不確定, and can その結果 produce nothing but subtleties and sophisms, was 大いに cultivated.

When those two sciences had thus been 始める，決める in 対立 to one another, the comparison between them 自然に gave birth to a third, to what was called Ontology, or the science which 扱う／治療するd of the 質s and せいにするs which were ありふれた to both the 支配するs of the other two sciences. But if subtleties and sophisms composed the greater part of the Metaphysics or Pneumatics of the schools, they composed the whole of this cobweb science of Ontology, which was likewise いつかs called Metaphysics.

Wherein consisted the happiness and perfection of a man, considered not only as an individual, but as the member of a family, of a 明言する／公表する, and of the 広大な／多数の／重要な society of mankind, was the 反対する which the 古代の moral philosophy 提案するd to 調査／捜査する. In that philosophy the 義務s of human life were 扱う／治療するd as subservient to the happiness and perfection of human life. But when moral, 同様に as natural philosophy, （機の）カム to be taught only as subservient to theology, the 義務s of human life were 扱う／治療するd of as 主として subservient to the happiness of a life to come. In the 古代の philosophy the perfection of virtue was 代表するd as やむを得ず 生産力のある, to the person who 所有するd it, of the most perfect happiness in this life. In the modern philosophy it was frequently 代表するd as 一般に, or rather as almost always, inconsistent with any degree of happiness in this life; and heaven was to be earned only by penance and mortification, by the 緊縮s and abasement of a 修道士; not by the 自由主義の, generous, and spirited 行為／行う of a man. Casuistry and an ascetic morality made up, in most 事例／患者s, the greater part of the moral philosophy of the schools. By far the most important of all the different 支店s of philosophy became in this manner by far the most corrupted.

Such, therefore, was the ありふれた course of philosophical education in the greater part of the universities in Europe. Logic was taught first: Ontology （機の）カム in the second place: Pneumatology, comprehending the doctrine 関心ing the nature of the human soul and of the Deity, in the third: in the fourth followed a debased system of moral philosophy which was considered as すぐに connected with the doctrines of Pneumatology, with the immortality of the human soul, and with the rewards and 罰s which, from the 司法（官） of the Deity, were to be 推定する／予想するd in a life to come: a short and superficial system of Physics usually 結論するd the course.

The alterations which the universities of Europe thus introduced into the 古代の course of philosophy were all meant for the education of ecclesiastics, and to （判決などを）下す it a more proper introduction to the 熟考する／考慮する of theology. But the 付加 量 of subtlety and sophistry, the casuistry and the ascetic morality which those alterations introduced into it, certainly did not （判決などを）下す it more proper for the education of gentlemen or men of the world, or more likely either to 改善する the understanding, or to mend the heart.

This course of philosophy is what still continues to be taught in the greater part of the universities of Europe, with more or いっそう少なく diligence, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the 憲法 of each particular university happens to （判決などを）下す diligence more or いっそう少なく necessary to the teachers. In some of the richest and best endowed universities, the 教えるs content themselves with teaching a few unconnected shreds and 小包s of this corrupted course; and even these they 一般的に teach very negligently and superficially.

The 改良s which, in modern times, have been made in several different 支店s of philosophy have not, the greater part of them, been made in universities, though some no 疑問 have. The greater part of universities have not even been very 今後 to 可決する・採択する those 改良s after they were made; and several of those learned societies have chosen to remain, for a long time, the 聖域s in which 爆発するd systems and obsolete prejudices 設立する 避難所 and 保護 after they had been 追跡（する）d out of every other corner of the world. In general, the richest and best endowed universities have been the slowest in 可決する・採択するing those 改良s, and the most averse to 許す any かなりの change in the 設立するd 計画（する） of education. Those 改良s were more easily introduced into some of the poorer universities, in which the teachers, depending upon their 評判 for the greater part of their subsistence, were 強いるd to 支払う／賃金 more attention to the 現在の opinions of the world.

But though the public schools and universities of Europe were 初めは ーするつもりであるd only for the education of a particular profession, that of churchmen; and though they were not always very diligent in 教えるing their pupils even in the sciences which were supposed necessary for that profession, yet they 徐々に drew to themselves the education of almost all other people, 特に of almost all gentlemen and men of fortune. No better method, it seems, could be fallen upon of spending, with any advantage, the long interval between 幼少／幼藍期 and that period of life at which men begin to 適用する in good earnest to the real 商売／仕事 of the world, the 商売／仕事 which is to 雇う them during the 残りの人，物 of their days. The greater part of what is taught in schools and universities, however, does not seem to be the most proper 準備 for that 商売／仕事.

In England it becomes every day more and more the custom to send young people to travel in foreign countries すぐに upon their leaving school, and without sending them to any university. Our young people, it is said, 一般に return home much 改善するd by their travels. A young man who goes abroad at seventeen or eighteen, and returns home at one and twenty, returns three or four years older than he was when he went abroad; and at that age it is very difficult not to 改善する a good 取引，協定 in three or four years. In the course of his travels he 一般に acquires some knowledge of one or two foreign languages; a knowledge, however, which is seldom 十分な to enable him either to speak or 令状 them with propriety. In other 尊敬（する）・点s he 一般的に returns home more conceited, more unprincipled, more dissipated, and more incapable of any serious 使用／適用 either to 熟考する／考慮する or to 商売／仕事 than he could 井戸／弁護士席 have become in so short a time had he lived at home. By travelling so very young, by spending in the most frivolous dissipation the most precious years of his life, at a distance from the 査察 and 支配（する）／統制する of his parents and relations, every useful habit which the earlier parts of his education might have had some 傾向 to form in him, instead of 存在 riveted and 確認するd, is almost やむを得ず either 弱めるd or effaced. Nothing but the discredit into which the universities are 許すing themselves to 落ちる could ever have brought into repute so very absurd a practice as that of travelling at this 早期に period of life. By sending his son abroad, a father 配達するs himself at least for some time, from so disagreeable an 反対する as that of a son 失業した, neglected, and going to 廃虚 before his 注目する，もくろむs.

Such have been the 影響s of some of the modern 会・原則s for education.

Different 計画（する）s and different 会・原則s for education seem to have taken place in other ages and nations.

In the 共和国s of 古代の Greece, every 解放する／自由な 国民 was 教えるd, under the direction of the public 治安判事, in 体操の 演習s and in music. By 体操の 演習s it was ーするつもりであるd to harden his 団体／死体, to sharpen his courage, and to 準備する him for the 疲労，（軍の）雑役s and dangers of war; and as the Greek 民兵 was, by all accounts, one of the best that ever was in the world, this part of their public education must have answered 完全に the 目的 for which it was ーするつもりであるd. By the other part, music, it was 提案するd, at least by the philosophers and historians who have given us an account of those 会・原則s, to humanize the mind, to 軟化する the temper, and to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる it for 成し遂げるing all the social and moral 義務s both of public and 私的な life.

In 古代の Rome the 演習s of the Campus Martius answered the 目的 as those of the 体育館 in 古代の Greece, and they seem to have answered it 平等に 井戸／弁護士席. But の中で the Romans there was nothing which corresponded to the musical education of the Greeks. The morals of the Romans, however, both in 私的な and public life, seem to have been not only equal, but, upon the whole, a good 取引，協定 superior to those of the Greeks. That they were superior in 私的な life, we have the 表明する 証言 of Polybius and of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, two authors 井戸／弁護士席 熟知させるd with both nations; and the whole tenor if the Greek and Roman history 耐えるs 証言，証人／目撃する to the 優越 of the public morals of the Romans. The good temper and moderation of 競うing 派閥s seems to be the most 必須の circumstances in the public morals of a 解放する／自由な people. But the 派閥s of the Greeks were almost always violent and sanguinary; 反して, till the time of the Gracchi, no 血 had ever been shed in any Roman 派閥; and from the time of the Gracchi the Roman 共和国 may be considered as in reality 解散させるd. Notwithstanding, therefore, the very respectable 当局 of Plato, Aristotle, and Polybius, and notwithstanding the very ingenious 推論する／理由s by which Mr. Montesquieu endeavours to support that 当局, it seems probable that the musical education of the Greeks had no 広大な／多数の／重要な 影響 in mending their morals, since, without any such education, those of the Romans were upon the whole superior. The 尊敬（する）・点 of those 古代の 下落するs for the 会・原則s of their ancestors had probably 性質の／したい気がして them to find much political 知恵 in what was, perhaps, 単に an 古代の custom, continued without interruption from the earliest period of those societies to the times in which they had arrived at a かなりの degree of refinement. Music and dancing are the 広大な／多数の／重要な amusements of almost all barbarous nations, and the 広大な／多数の／重要な 業績／成就s which are supposed to fit any man for entertaining his society. It is so at this day の中で the negroe s on the coast of Africa. It was so の中で the 古代の Celts, の中で the 古代の Scandinavians, and, as we may learn from ホームラン, の中で the 古代の Greeks in the times 先行する the Trojan war. When the Greek tribes had formed themselves into little 共和国s, it was natural that the 熟考する／考慮する of those 業績／成就s should, for a long time, make a part of the public and ありふれた education of the people.

The masters who 教えるd the young people, either in music or in 軍の 演習s, do not seem to have been paid, or even 任命するd by the 明言する／公表する, either in Rome or even in Athens, the Greek 共和国 of whose 法律s and customs we are the best 知らせるd. The 明言する／公表する 要求するd that every 解放する／自由な 国民 should fit himself for defending it in war, and should, upon that account, learn his 軍の 演習s. But it left him to learn them of such masters as he could find, and it seems to have 前進するd nothing for this 目的 but a public field or place of 演習 in which he should practise and 成し遂げる them.

In the 早期に ages both of the Greek and Roman 共和国s, the other parts of education seem to have consisted in learning to read, 令状, and account によれば the arithmetic of the times. These 業績／成就s the richer 国民s seem frequently to have acquired at home by the 援助 of some 国内の pedagogue, who was 一般に either a slave or a 解放する／自由なd-man; and the poorer 国民s, in the schools of such masters as made a 貿易（する） of teaching for 雇う. Such parts of education, however, were abandoned altogether to the care of the parents or 後見人s of each individual. It does not appear that the 明言する／公表する ever assumed any 査察 or direction of them. By a 法律 of 議員, indeed, the children were acquitted from 持続するing those parents in their old age who had neglected to 教える them in some profitable 貿易（する） or 商売／仕事.

In the 進歩 of refinement, when philosophy and rhetoric （機の）カム into fashion, the better sort of people used to send their children to the schools of philosophers and rhetoricians, ーするために be 教えるd in these 流行の／上流の sciences. But those schools were not supported by the public. They were for a long time barely 許容するd by it. The 需要・要求する for philosophy and rhetoric was for a long time so small that the first professed teachers of either could not find constant 雇用 in any one city, but were 強いるd to travel about from place to place. In this manner lived Zeno of Elea, Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, and many others. As the 需要・要求する 増加するd, the schools both of philosophy and rhetoric became 静止している; first in Athens, and afterwards in several other cities. The 明言する／公表する, however, seems never to have encouraged them その上の than by 割り当てるing some of them a particular place to teach in, which was いつかs done, too, by 私的な 寄贈者s. The 明言する／公表する seems to have 割り当てるd the 学院 to Plato, the Lyceum to Aristotle, and the Portico to Zeno of Citta, the 創立者 of the Stoics. But Epicurus bequeathed his gardens to his own school. Till about the time of Marcus Antonius, however, no teacher appears to have had any salary from the public, or to have had any other emoluments but what arose from the 名誉として与えられるs or 料金s of his scholars. The bounty which that philosophical emperor, as we learn from Lucian, bestowed upon one of the teachers of philosophy, probably lasted no longer than his own life. There was nothing 同等（の） to the 特権s of 卒業, and to have …に出席するd any of those schools was not necessary, ーするために be permitted to practise any particular 貿易（する） or profession. If the opinion of their own 公共事業（料金）／有用性 could not draw scholars to them, the 法律 neither 軍隊d anybody to go to them nor rewarded anybody for having gone to them. The teachers had no 裁判権 over their pupils, nor any other 当局 besides that natural 当局, which superior virtue and abilities never fail to procur e from young people に向かって those who are ゆだねるd with any part of their education.

At Rome, the 熟考する／考慮する of the 民法 made a part of the education, not of the greater part of the 国民s, but of some particular families. The young people, however, who wished to acquire knowledge in the 法律, had no public school to go to, and had no other method of 熟考する／考慮するing it than by たびたび（訪れる）ing the company of such of their relations and friends as were supposed to understand it. It is perhaps 価値（がある） while to 発言／述べる, that though the 法律s of the Twelve （米）棚上げする／（英）提議するs were, many of them, copied from those of some 古代の Greek 共和国s, yet 法律 never seems to have grown up to be a science in any 共和国 of 古代の Greece. In Rome it became a science very 早期に, and gave a かなりの degree of illustration to those 国民s who had the 評判 of understanding it. In the 共和国s of 古代の Greece, 特に in Athens, the ordinary 法廷，裁判所s of 司法（官） consisted of 非常に／多数の, and therefore disorderly, 団体／死体s of people, who frequently decided almost at 無作為の, or as clamour, 派閥, and party spirit happened to 決定する. The ignominy of an 不正な 決定／判定勝ち（する）, when it was to be divided の中で five hundred, a thousand, or fifteen hundred people (for some of their 法廷，裁判所s were so very 非常に／多数の), could not 落ちる very 激しい upon any individual. At Rome, on the contrary, the 主要な／長／主犯 法廷，裁判所s of 司法（官） consisted either of a 選び出す／独身 裁判官 or of a small number of 裁判官s, whose characters, 特に as they 審議する／熟考するd always in public, could not fail to be very much 影響する／感情d by any 無分別な or 不正な 決定／判定勝ち（する）. In doubtful 事例／患者s such 法廷，裁判所s, from their 苦悩 to 避ける 非難する, would 自然に endeavour to 避難所 themselves under the example or precedent of the 裁判官s who had sat before them, either in the same or in some other 法廷，裁判所. This attention to practice and precedent やむを得ず formed the Roman 法律 into that 正規の／正選手 and 整然とした system in which it has been 配達するd 負かす／撃墜する to us; and the like attention has had the like 影響s upon the 法律s of every other country where such attention has taken place. The 優越 of charac ter in the Romans over that of the Greeks, so much 発言／述べるd by Polybius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, was probably more 借りがあるing to the better 憲法 of their 法廷，裁判所s of 司法（官） than to any of the circumstances to which those authors ascribe it. The Romans are said to have been 特に distinguished for their superior 尊敬（する）・点 to an 誓い. But the people who were accustomed to make 誓い only before some diligent and 井戸／弁護士席-知らせるd 法廷，裁判所 of 司法（官） would 自然に be much more attentive to what they swore than they who were accustomed to do the same thing before mobbish and disorderly 議会s.

The abilities, both civil and 軍の, of the Greeks and Romans will readily be 許すd to have been at least equal to those of any modern nation. Our prejudice is perhaps rather to overrate them. But except in what 関係のある to 軍の 演習s, the 明言する／公表する seems to have been at no 苦痛s to form those 広大な／多数の／重要な abilities, for I cannot be induced to believe that the musical education of the Greeks could be of much consequence in forming them. Masters, however, had been 設立する, it seems, for 教えるing the better sort of people の中で those nations in every art and science in which the circumstances of their society （判決などを）下すd it necessary or convenient for them to be 教えるd. The 需要・要求する for such 指示／教授／教育 produced what it always produces- the talent for giving it; and the emulation which an unrestrained 競争 never fails to excite, appears to have brought that talent to a very high degree of perfection. In the attention which the 古代の philosophers excited, in the empire which they acquired over the opinions and 原則s of their auditors, in the faculty which they 所有するd of giving a 確かな トン and character to the 行為／行う and conversation of those auditors, they appear to have been much superior to any modern teachers. In modern times, the diligence of public teachers is more or いっそう少なく corrupted by the circumstances which （判決などを）下す them more or いっそう少なく 独立した・無所属 of their success and 評判 in their particular professions. Their salaries, too, put the 私的な teacher, who would pretend to come into 競争 with them, in the same 明言する／公表する with a merchant who 試みる／企てるs to 貿易（する） without a bounty in 競争 with those who 貿易（する） with a かなりの one. If he sells his goods at nearly the same price, he cannot have the same 利益（をあげる）, and at least, if not 破産 and 廃虚, will infallibly be his lot. If he 試みる／企てるs to sell them much dearer, he is likely to have so few 顧客s that his circumstances will not be much mended. The 特権s of 卒業, besides, are in many countries necessary, or at l east 極端に convenient, to most men of learned professions, that is, to the far greater part of those who have occasion for a learned education. But those 特権s can be 得るd only by …に出席するing the lectures of the public teachers. The most careful 出席 upon the ablest 指示／教授／教育s of any 私的な teacher cannot always give any 肩書を与える to 需要・要求する them. It is from these different 原因（となる）s that the 私的な teacher of any of the sciences which are 一般的に taught in universities is in modern times 一般に considered as in the very lowest order of men of letters. A man of real abilities can 不十分な find out a more humiliating or a more 無益な 雇用 to turn them to. The endowment of schools and colleges have, in this manner, not only corrupted the diligence of public teachers, but have （判決などを）下すd it almost impossible to have any good 私的な ones.

Were there no public 会・原則s for education, no system, no science would be taught for which there was not some 需要・要求する, or which the circumstances of the times did not （判決などを）下す it either necessary, or convenient, or at least 流行の／上流の, to learn. A 私的な teacher could never find his account in teaching either an 爆発するd and 古風な system of a science 定評のある to be useful, or a science universally believed to be a mere useless and pedantic heap of sophistry and nonsense. Such systems, such sciences, can subsist nowhere, but in those 会社にする／組み込むd societies for education whose 繁栄 and 歳入 are in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 独立した・無所属 of their 評判 and altogether 独立した・無所属 of their 産業. Were there no public 会・原則s for education, a gentleman, after going through with 使用／適用 and abilities the most 完全にする course of education which the circumstances of the times were supposed to afford, could not come into the world 完全に ignorant of everything which is the ありふれた 支配する of conversation の中で gentlemen and men of the world.

There are no public 会・原則s for the education of women, and there is accordingly nothing useless, absurd, or fantastical in the ありふれた course of their education. They are taught what their parents or 後見人s 裁判官 it necessary or useful for them to learn, and they are taught nothing else. Every part of their education tends evidently to some useful 目的; either to 改善する the natural attractions of their person, or to form their mind to reserve, to modesty, to chastity, and to economy; to （判決などを）下す them both likely to become the mistresses of a family, and to behave 適切に when they have become such. In every part of her life a woman feels some conveniency or advantage from every part of her education. It seldom happens that a man, in any part of his life, derives any conveniency or advantage from some of the most laborious and troublesome parts of his education.

Ought the public, therefore, to give no attention, it may be asked, to the education of the people? Or if it せねばならない give any, what are the different parts of education which it せねばならない …に出席する to in the different orders of the people? and in what manner ought it to …に出席する to them?

In some 事例／患者s the 明言する／公表する of the society やむを得ず places the greater part of individuals in such 状況／情勢s as 自然に form in them, without any attention of 政府, almost all the abilities and virtues which that 明言する／公表する 要求するs, or perhaps can 収容する／認める of. In other 事例／患者s the 明言する／公表する of the society does not place the part of individuals in such 状況／情勢s, and some attention of 政府 is necessary ーするために 妨げる the almost entire 汚職 and degeneracy of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people.

In the 進歩 of the 分割 of 労働, the 雇用 of the far greater part of those who live by 労働, that is, of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, comes to be 限定するd to a few very simple 操作／手術s, frequently to one or two. But the understandings of the greater part of men are やむを得ず formed by their ordinary 雇用s. The man whose whole life is spent in 成し遂げるing a few simple 操作／手術s, of which the 影響s are perhaps always the same, or very nearly the same, has no occasion to 発揮する his understanding or to 演習 his 発明 in finding out expedients for 除去するing difficulties which never occur. He 自然に loses, therefore, the habit of such exertion, and 一般に becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become. The torpor of his mind （判決などを）下すs him not only incapable of relishing or 耐えるing a part in any 合理的な／理性的な conversation, but of conceiving any generous, noble, or tender 感情, and その結果 of forming any just judgment 関心ing many even of the ordinary 義務s of 私的な life. Of the 広大な／多数の／重要な and 広範囲にわたる 利益／興味s of his country he is altogether incapable of 裁判官ing, and unless very particular 苦痛s have been taken to （判決などを）下す him さもなければ, he is 平等に incapable of defending his country in war. The uniformity of his 静止している life 自然に corrupts the courage of his mind, and makes him regard with abhorrence the 不規律な, uncertain, and adventurous life of a 兵士. It corrupts even the activity of his 団体／死体, and （判決などを）下すs him incapable of 発揮するing his strength with vigour and perseverance in any other 雇用 than that to which he has been bred. His dexterity at his own particular 貿易（する） seems, in this manner, to be acquired at the expense of his 知識人, social, and 戦争の virtues. But in every 改善するd and civilised society this is the 明言する／公表する into which the 労働ing poor, that is, the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, must やむを得ず 落ちる, unless 政府 takes some 苦痛s to 妨げる it.

It is さもなければ in the barbarous societies, as they are 一般的に called, of hunters, of shepherds, and even of husbandmen in that rude 明言する／公表する of husbandry which に先行するs the 改良 of 製造（する）s and the 拡張 of foreign 商業. In such societies the 変化させるd 占領／職業s of every man 強いる every man to 発揮する his capacity and to invent expedients for 除去するing difficulties which are continually occurring. 発明 is kept alive, and the mind is not 苦しむd to 落ちる into that drowsy stupidity which, in a civilised society, seems to benumb the understanding of almost all the inferior 階級s of people. In those barbarous societies, as they are called, every man, it has already been 観察するd, is a 軍人. Every man, too, is in some 手段 a 政治家, and can form a tolerable judgment 関心ing the 利益／興味 of the society and the 行為／行う of those who 治める／統治する it. How far their 長，指導者s are good 裁判官s in peace, or good leaders in war, is obvious to the 観察 of almost every 選び出す／独身 man の中で them. In such a society, indeed, no man can 井戸／弁護士席 acquire that 改善するd and 精製するd understanding which a few men いつかs 所有する in a more civilised 明言する／公表する. Though in a rude society there is a good 取引，協定 of variety in the 占領／職業s of every individual, there is not a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 in those of the whole society. Every man does, or is 有能な of doing, almost every thing which any other man does, or is 有能な of doing. Every man has a かなりの degree of knowledge, ingenuity, and 発明: but 不十分な any man has a 広大な／多数の／重要な degree. The degree, however, which is 一般的に 所有するd, is 一般に 十分な for 行為／行うing the whole simple 商売／仕事 of the society. In a civilised 明言する／公表する, on the contrary, though there is little variety in the 占領／職業s of the greater part of individuals, there is an almost infinite variety in those of the whole society. These 変化させるd 占領／職業s 現在の an almost infinite variety of 反対するs to the contemplation of those few, who, 存在 大（公）使館員d to no particular 占領／職業 themselves, have le isure and inclination to 診察する the 占領／職業s of other people. The contemplation of so 広大な／多数の／重要な a variety of 反対するs やむを得ず 演習s their minds in endless comparisons and combinations, and （判決などを）下すs their understandings, in an 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の degree, both 激烈な／緊急の and 包括的な. Unless those few, however, happen to be placed in some very particular 状況／情勢s, their 広大な／多数の／重要な abilities, though honourable to themselves, may 与える／捧げる very little to the good 政府 or happiness of their society. Notwithstanding the 広大な／多数の／重要な abilities of those few, all the nobler parts of the human character may be, in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段, obliterated and 消滅させるd in the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people.

The education of the ありふれた people 要求するs, perhaps, in a civilised and 商業の society the attention of the public more than that of people of some 階級 and fortune. People of some 階級 and fortune are 一般に eighteen or nineteen years of age before they enter upon that particular 商売／仕事, profession, or 貿易（する）, by which they 提案する to distinguish themselves in the world. They have before that 十分な time to acquire, or at least to fit themselves for afterwards acquiring, every 業績／成就 which can recommend them to the public esteem, or （判決などを）下す them worthy of it. Their parents or 後見人s are 一般に 十分に anxious that they should be so 遂行するd, and are, in most 事例／患者s, willing enough to lay out the expense which is necessary for that 目的. If they are not always 適切に educated, it is seldom from the want of expense laid out upon their education, but from the 妥当でない 使用／適用 of that expense. It is seldom from the want of masters, but from the 怠慢，過失 and incapacity of the masters who are to be had, and from the difficulty, or rather from the impossibility, which there is in the 現在の 明言する／公表する of things of finding any better. The 雇用s, too, in which people of some 階級 or fortune spend the greater part of their lives are not, like those of the ありふれた people, simple and uniform. They are almost all of them 極端に 複雑にするd, and such as 演習 the 長，率いる more than the 手渡すs. The understandings of those who are engaged in such 雇用s can seldom grow torpid for want of 演習. The 雇用s of people of some 階級 and fortune, besides, are seldom such as 悩ます them from morning to night. They 一般に have a good 取引，協定 of leisure, during which they may perfect themselves in every 支店 either of useful or ornamental knowledge of which they may have laid the 創立／基礎, or for which they may have acquired some taste in the earlier part of life.

It is さもなければ with the ありふれた people. They have little time to spare for education. Their parents can 不十分な afford to 持続する them even in 幼少／幼藍期. As soon as they are able to work they must 適用する to some 貿易（する） by which they can earn their subsistence. That 貿易（する）, too, is 一般に so simple and uniform as to give little 演習 to the understanding, while, at the same time, their 労働 is both so constant and so 厳しい, that it leaves them little leisure and いっそう少なく inclination to 適用する to, or even to think of, anything else.

But though the ありふれた people cannot, in any civilised society, be so 井戸／弁護士席 教えるd as people of some 階級 and fortune, the most 必須の parts of education, however, to read, 令状, and account, can be acquired at so 早期に a period of life that the greater part even of those who are to be bred to the lowest 占領／職業s have time to acquire them before they can be 雇うd in those 占領／職業s. For a very small expense the public can 容易にする, can encourage, and can even 課す upon almost the whole 団体／死体 of the people the necessity of acquiring those most 必須の parts of education.

The public can 容易にする this 取得／買収 by 設立するing in every parish or 地区 a little school, where children may be taught for a reward so 穏健な that even a ありふれた labourer may afford it; the master 存在 partly, but not wholly, paid by the public, because, if he was wholly, or even principally, paid by it, he would soon learn to neglect his 商売／仕事. In Scotland the 設立 of such parish schools has taught almost the whole ありふれた people to read, and a very 広大な／多数の／重要な 割合 of them to 令状 and account. In England the 設立 of charity schools has had an 影響 of the same 肉親，親類d, though not so universally, because the 設立 is not so 全世界の／万国共通の. If in those little schools the 調書をとる／予約するs, by which the children are taught to read, were a little more instructive than they 一般的に are, and if, instead of a little smattering of Latin, which the children of the ありふれた people are いつかs taught there, and which can 不十分な ever be of any use to them, they were 教えるd in the elementary parts of geometry and mechanics, the literary education of this 階級 of people would perhaps be as 完全にする as it can be. There is 不十分な a ありふれた 貿易（する） which does not afford some 適切な時期s of 適用するing to it the 原則s of geometry and mechanics, and which would not therefore 徐々に 演習 and 改善する the ありふれた people in those 原則s, the necessary introduction to the most sublime 同様に as to the most useful sciences.

The public can encourage the 取得／買収 of those most 必須の parts of education by giving small 賞与金s, and little badges of distinction, to the children of the ありふれた people who excel in them.

The public can 課す upon almost the whole 団体／死体 of the people the necessity of acquiring those most 必須の parts of education, by 強いるing every man to を受ける an examination or 保護監察 in them before he can 得る the freedom in any 会社／団体, or be 許すd to 始める，決める up any 貿易（する） either in a village or town 法人組織の／企業の.

It was in this manner, by 容易にするing the 取得／買収 of their 軍の and 体操の 演習s, by encouraging it, and even by 課すing upon the whole 団体／死体 of the people the necessity of learning those 演習s, that the Greek and Roman 共和国s 持続するd the 戦争の spirit of their 各々の 国民s. They 容易にするd the 取得／買収 of those 演習s by 任命するing a 確かな place for learning and practising them, and by 認めるing to 確かな masters the 特権 of teaching in that place. Those masters do not appear to have had either salaries or 排除的 特権s of any 肉親，親類d. Their reward consisted altogether in what they got from their scholars; and a 国民 who had learnt his 演習s in the public gymnasia had no sort of 合法的な advantage over one who had learnt them 個人として, 供給するd the latter had learnt them 平等に 井戸／弁護士席. Those 共和国s encouraged the 取得／買収 of those 演習s by bestowing little 賞与金s and badges of distinction upon: those who excelled in them. To have 伸び（る）d a prize in the Olympic, Isthmian, or Nemaean games, gave illustration, not only to the person who 伸び（る）d it, but to his whole family and kindred. The 義務 which every 国民 was under to serve a 確かな number of years, if called upon, in the armies of the 共和国, 十分に 課すd the necessity of learning those 演習s, without which he could not be fit for that service.

That in the 進歩 of 改良 the practice of 軍の 演習s, unless 政府 takes proper 苦痛s to support it, goes 徐々に to decay, and, together with it, the 戦争の spirit of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, the example of modern Europe 十分に 論証するs. But the 安全 of every society must always depend, more or いっそう少なく, upon the 戦争の spirit of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people. In the 現在の times, indeed, that 戦争の spirit alone, and unsupported by a 井戸／弁護士席-disciplined standing army, would not perhaps be 十分な for the defence and 安全 of any society. But where every 国民 had the spirit of a 兵士, a smaller standing army would surely be requisite. That spirit, besides, would やむを得ず 減らす very much the dangers to liberty, whether real or imaginary, which are 一般的に apprehended from a standing army. As it would very much 容易にする the 操作／手術s of that army against a foreign invader, so it would 妨害する them as much if, unfortunately, they should ever be directed against the 憲法 of the 明言する／公表する.

The 古代の 会・原則s of Greece and Rome seem to have been much more effectual for 持続するing the 戦争の spirit of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people than the 設立 of what are called the 民兵s of modern times. They were much more simple. When they were once 設立するd they 遂行する／発効させるd themselves, and it 要求するd little or no attention from 政府 to 持続する them in the most perfect vigour. 反して to 持続する, even in tolerable 死刑執行, the コンビナート／複合体 規則s of any modern 民兵, 要求するs the continual and painful attention of 政府, without which they are 絶えず 落ちるing into total neglect and disuse. The 影響（力）, besides, of the 古代の 会・原則s was much more 全世界の／万国共通の. By means of them the whole 団体／死体 of the people was 完全に 教えるd in the use of 武器. 反して it is but a very small part of them who can ever be so 教えるd by the 規則s of any modern 民兵, except, perhaps, that of Switzerland. But a coward, a man incapable either of defending or of 復讐ing himself, evidently wants one of the most 必須の parts of the character of a man. He is as much mutilated and deformed in his mind as another is in his 団体／死体, who is either 奪うd of some of its most 必須の members, or has lost the use of them. He is evidently the more wretched and 哀れな of the two; because happiness and 悲惨, which reside altogether in the mind, must やむを得ず depend more upon the healthful or unhealthful, the mutilated or entire 明言する／公表する of the mind, than upon that of the 団体／死体. Even though the 戦争の spirit of the people were of no use に向かって the defence of the society, yet to 妨げる that sort of mental mutilation, deformity, and wretchedness, which cowardice やむを得ず 伴う／関わるs in it, from spreading themselves through the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, would still deserve the most serious attention of 政府, in the same manner as it would deserve its most serious attention to 妨げる a leprosy or any other loathsome and 不快な／攻撃 病気, though neither mortal nor dangero us, from spreading itself の中で them, though perhaps no other public good might result from such attention besides the 予防 of so 広大な／多数の／重要な a public evil.

The same thing may be said of the 甚だしい／１２ダース ignorance and stupidity which, in a civilised society, seem so frequently to benumb the understandings of all the inferior 階級s of people. A man without the proper use of the 知識人 faculties of a man, is, if possible, more contemptible than even a coward, and seems to be mutilated and deformed in a still more 必須の part of the character of human nature. Though the 明言する／公表する was to derive no advantage from the 指示／教授／教育 of the inferior 階級s of people, it would still deserve its attention that they should not be altogether uninstructed. The 明言する／公表する, however, derives no inconsiderable advantage from their 指示／教授／教育. The more they are 教えるd the いっそう少なく liable they are to the delusions of enthusiasm and superstition, which, の中で ignorant nations, frequently occasion the most dreadful disorders. An 教えるd and intelligent people, besides, are always more decent and 整然とした than an ignorant and stupid one. They feel themselves, each 個々に, more respectable and more likely to 得る the 尊敬（する）・点 of their lawful superiors, and they are therefore more 性質の／したい気がして to 尊敬（する）・点 those superiors. They are more 性質の／したい気がして to 診察する, and more 有能な of seeing through, the 利益／興味d （民事の）告訴s of 派閥 and sedition, and they are, upon that account, いっそう少なく apt to be misled into any wanton or unnecessary 対立 to the 対策 of 政府. In 解放する／自由な countries, where the safety of 政府 depends very much upon the favourable judgment which the people may form of its 行為／行う, it must surely be of the highest importance that they should not be 性質の／したい気がして to 裁判官 rashly or capriciously 関心ing it.

Article III: Of the Expense of the 会・原則s for the 指示／教授／教育 of
People of all Ages

In the Church of Rome, the 産業 and zeal of the inferior clergy are kept more alive by the powerful 動機 of self-利益／興味 than perhaps in any 設立するd Protestant church. The parochial clergy derive, many of them, a very かなりの part of their subsistence from the voluntary oblations of the people; a source of 歳入 which 自白 gives them many 適切な時期s of 改善するing. The mendicant orders derive their whole subsistence from such oblations. It is with them as with the hussars and light infantry of some armies; no plunder, no 支払う／賃金. The parochial clergy are like those teachers whose reward depends partly upon their salary, and partly upon the 料金s or 名誉として与えられるs which they get from their pupils, and these must always depend more or いっそう少なく upon their 産業 and 評判. The mendicant orders are like those teachers whose subsistence depends altogether upon the 産業. They are 強いるd, therefore, to use every art which can animate the devotion of the ありふれた people. The 設立 of the two 広大な／多数の／重要な mendicant orders of St. Dominic and St. Francis, it is 観察するd by Machiavel, 生き返らせるd, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the languishing 約束 and devotion of the カトリック教徒 Church. In Roman カトリック教徒 countries the spirit of devotion is supported altogether by the 修道士s and by the poorer parochial clergy. The 広大な／多数の／重要な 高官s of the church, with all the 業績／成就s of gentlemen and men of the world, and いつかs with those of men of learning, are careful enough to 持続する the necessary discipline over their inferiors, but seldom give themselves any trouble about the 指示／教授／教育 of the people.

"Most of the arts and professions in a 明言する／公表する," says by far the most illustrious philosopher and historian of the 現在の age, "are of such a nature that, while they 促進する the 利益／興味s of the society, they are also useful or agreeable to some individuals; and in that 事例／患者, the constant 支配する of the 治安判事, except perhaps on the first introduction of any art, is to leave the profession to itself, and 信用 its 激励 to the individuals who 得る the 利益 of it. The artisans, finding their 利益（をあげる）s to rise by the favour of their 顧客s, 増加する as much as possible their 技術 and 産業; and as 事柄s are not 乱すd by any injudicious tampering, the 商品／必需品 is always sure to be at all times nearly 割合d to the 需要・要求する.

"But there are also some callings, which, though useful and even necessary in a 明言する／公表する, bring no advantage or 楽しみ to any individual, and the 最高の 力／強力にする is 強いるd to alter its 行為／行う with regard to the retainers of those professions. It must give them public 激励 ーするために their subsistence, and it must 供給する against that 怠慢，過失 to which they will 自然に be 支配する, either by 別館ing particular honours to the profession, by 設立するing a long subordination of 階級s and a strict dependence, or by some other expedient. The persons 雇うd in the 財政／金融s, (n)艦隊／(a)素早いs, and magistracy, are instances of this order of men.

"It may 自然に be thought, at first sight, that the ecclesiastics belong to the first class, and that their 激励, 同様に as that of lawyers and 内科医s, may 安全に be ゆだねるd to the liberality of individuals, who are 大（公）使館員d to their doctrines, and who find 利益 or なぐさみ from their spiritual 省 and 援助. Their 産業 and vigilance will, no 疑問, be whetted by such an 付加 動機; and their 技術 in the profession, 同様に as their 演説（する）／住所 in 治める／統治するing the minds of the people, must receive daily 増加する from their 増加するing practice, 熟考する／考慮する, and attention.

"But if we consider the 事柄 more closely, we shall find that this 利益／興味d diligence of the clergy is what every wise 立法議員 will 熟考する／考慮する to 妨げる; because in every 宗教 except the true it is 高度に pernicious, and it has even a natural 傾向 to pervert the true, by infusing into it a strong mixture of superstition, folly, and delusion. Each ghostly practitioner, ーするために （判決などを）下す himself more precious and sacred in the 注目する，もくろむs of his retainers, will 奮起させる them with the most violent abhorrence of all other sects, and continually endeavour, by some novelty, to excite the languid devotion of his audience. No regard will be paid to truth, morals, or decency in the doctrines inculcated. Every tenet will be 可決する・採択するd that best 控訴s the disorderly affections of the human でっちあげる，人を罪に陥れる. 顧客s will be drawn to each conventicle by new 産業 and 演説（する）／住所 in practising on the passions and credulity of the populace. And in the end, the civil 治安判事 will find that he has dearly paid for his pretended frugality, in saving a 直す／買収する，八百長をするd 設立 for the priests; and that in reality the most decent and advantageous composition which he can make with the spiritual guides, is to 賄賂 their indolence by 割り当てるing 明言する／公表するd salaries to their profession, and （判決などを）下すing it superfluous for them to be さらに先に active than 単に to 妨げる their flock from 逸脱するing in 追求（する），探索（する） of new pastures. And in this manner ecclesiastical 設立s, though 一般的に they arose at first from 宗教的な 見解（をとる）s, 証明する in the end advantageous to the political 利益／興味s of society."

But whatever may have been the good or bad 影響s of the 独立した・無所属 準備／条項 of the clergy, it has, perhaps, been very seldom bestowed upon them from any 見解（をとる） to those 影響s. Times of violent 宗教的な 論争 have 一般に been times of 平等に violent political 派閥. Upon such occasions, each 政党 has either 設立する it, or imagined it, for its 利益／興味 to league itself with some one or other of the 競うing 宗教的な sects. But this could be done only by 可決する・採択するing, or at least by favouring, the tenets of that particular sect. The sect which had the good fortune to be leagued with the 征服する／打ち勝つing party やむを得ず 株d in the victory of its 同盟（する）, by whose favour and 保護 it was soon enabled in some degree to silence and subdue all its adversaries. Those adversaries had 一般に leagued themselves with the enemies of the 征服する／打ち勝つing party, and were therefore the enemies of that party. The clergy of this particular sect having thus become 完全にする masters of the field, and their 影響（力） and 当局 with the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people 存在 in its highest vigour, they were powerful enough to overawe the 長，指導者s and leaders of their own party, and to 強いる the civil 治安判事 to 尊敬（する）・点 their opinions and inclinations. Their first 需要・要求する was 一般に that he should silence and subdue an their adversaries: and their second, that he should bestow an 独立した・無所属 準備／条項 on themselves. As they had 一般に 与える／捧げるd a good 取引，協定 to the victory, it seemed not 不当な that they should have some 株 in the spoil. They were 疲れた／うんざりした, besides, of humouring the people, and of depending upon their caprice for a subsistence. In making this 需要・要求する, therefore, they 協議するd their own 緩和する and 慰安, without troubling themselves about the 影響 which it might have in 未来 times upon the 影響（力） and 当局 of their order. The civil 治安判事, who could 従う with this 需要・要求する only by giving them something which he would have chosen much rather to take, or to keep to himself, wa s seldom very 今後 to 認める it. Necessity, however, always 軍隊d him to 服従させる／提出する at last, though frequently not till after many 延期するs, 回避s, and 影響する／感情d excuses.

But if politics had never called in the 援助（する） of 宗教, had the 征服する／打ち勝つing party never 可決する・採択するd the tenets of one sect more than those of another when it had 伸び（る）d the victory, it would probably have dealt 平等に and impartially with all the different sects, and have 許すd every man to choose his own priest and his own 宗教 as he thought proper. There would in this 事例／患者, no 疑問' have been a 広大な／多数の／重要な multitude of 宗教的な sects. Almost every different congregation might probably have made a little sect by itself, or have entertained some peculiar tenets of its own. Each teacher would no 疑問 have felt himself under the necessity of making the 最大の exertion and of using every art both to 保存する and to 増加する the number of his disciples. But as every other teacher would have felt himself under the same necessity, the success of no one teacher, or sect of teachers, could have been very 広大な／多数の／重要な. The 利益／興味d and active zeal of 宗教的な teachers can be dangerous and troublesome only where there is either but one sect 許容するd in the society, or where the whole of a large society is divided into two or three 広大な／多数の／重要な sects; the teachers of each 事実上の／代理 by concert, and under a 正規の／正選手 discipline and subordination. But that zeal must be altogether innocent where the society is divided into two or three hundred, or perhaps into as many thousand small sects, of which no one could be かなりの enough to 乱す the public tranquility. The teachers of each sect, seeing themselves surrounded on all 味方するs with more adversaries than friends, would be 強いるd to learn that candour and moderation which is so seldom to be 設立する の中で the teachers of those 広大な／多数の／重要な sects whose tenets, 存在 supported by the civil 治安判事, are held in veneration by almost all the inhabitants of 広範囲にわたる kingdoms and empires, and who therefore see nothing 一連の会議、交渉／完成する them but 信奉者s, disciples, and humble admirers. The teachers of each little sect, finding themselves almost alone, would be 強いるd to 尊敬（する）・点 those of almost every other sect, and the 譲歩s which they would 相互に find it both convenient and agreeable to make to one another, might in time probably 減ずる the doctrine of the greater part of them to that pure and 合理的な／理性的な 宗教, 解放する／自由な from every mixture of absurdity, imposture, or fanaticism, such as wise men have in all ages of the world wished to see 設立するd; but such as 肯定的な 法律 has perhaps never yet 設立するd, and probably never will 設立する, in any country: because, with regard to 宗教, 肯定的な 法律 always has been, and probably always will be, more or いっそう少なく 影響（力）d by popular superstition and enthusiasm. This 計画（する） of ecclesiastical 政府, or more 適切に of no ecclesiastical 政府, was what the sect called 独立した・無所属s, a sect no 疑問 of very wild 熱中している人s, 提案するd to 設立する in England に向かって the end of the civil war. If it had been 設立するd, though of a very unphilosophical origin, it would probably by this time have been 生産力のある of the most philosophical good temper and moderation with regard to every sort of 宗教的な 原則. It has been 設立するd in Pennsylvania, where, though the Quakers happen to be the most 非常に／多数の, the 法律 in reality favours no one sect more than another, and it is there said to have been 生産力のある of this philosophical good temper and moderation.

But though this equality of 治療 should not be 生産力のある of this good temper and moderation in all, or even in the greater part of the 宗教的な sects of a particular country, yet 供給するd those sects were 十分に 非常に／多数の, and each of them その結果 too small to 乱す the public tranquillity, the 過度の zeal of each for its particular tenets could not 井戸／弁護士席 be 生産力のある of any very harmful 影響s, but, on the contrary, of several good ones: and if the 政府 was perfectly decided both to let them all alone, and to 強いる them all to let alone one another, there is little danger that they would not of their own （許可，名誉などを）与える subdivide themselves 急速な／放蕩な enough so as soon to become 十分に 非常に／多数の.

In every civilised society, in every society where the distinction of 階級s has once been 完全に 設立するd, there have been always two different 計画／陰謀s or systems of morality 現在の at the same time; of which the one may be called the strict or 厳格な，質素な; the other the 自由主義の, or, if you will, the loose system. The former is 一般に admired and 深い尊敬の念を抱くd by the ありふれた people: the latter is 一般的に more esteemed and 可決する・採択するd by what are called people of fashion. The degree of disapprobation with which we せねばならない 示す the 副／悪徳行為s of levity, the 副／悪徳行為s which are apt to arise from 広大な／多数の／重要な 繁栄, and from the 超過 of gaiety and good humour, seems to 構成する the 主要な／長／主犯 distinction between those two opposite 計画／陰謀s or systems. In the 自由主義の or loose system, 高級な, wanton and even disorderly mirth, the 追跡 of 楽しみ to some degree of intemperance, the 違反 of chastity, at least in one of the two sexes, etc., 供給するd they are not …を伴ってd with 甚だしい／１２ダース わいせつ, and do not lead to falsehood or 不正, are 一般に 扱う／治療するd with a good 取引，協定 of indulgence, and are easily either excused or 容赦d altogether. In the 厳格な，質素な system, on the contrary, those 超過s are regarded with the 最大の abhorrence and detestation. The 副／悪徳行為s of levity are always ruinous to the ありふれた people, and a 選び出す／独身 week's thoughtlessness and dissipation is often 十分な to undo a poor workman for ever, and to 運動 him through despair upon committing the most enormous 罪，犯罪s. The wiser and better sort of the ありふれた people, therefore, have always the 最大の abhorrence and detestation of such 超過s, which their experience tells them are so すぐに 致命的な to people of their 条件. The disorder and extravagance of several years, on the contrary, will not always 廃虚 a man of fashion, and people of that 階級 are very apt to consider the 力／強力にする of indulging in some degree of 超過 as one of the advantages of their fortune, and the liberty of doing so without 非難 or reproach as one of the 特権s which belong to their 駅／配置する. In people of their own 駅／配置する, therefore, they regard such 超過s with but a small degree of disapprobation, and 非難 them either very わずかに or not at all.

Almost all 宗教的な sects have begun の中で the ありふれた people, from whom they have 一般に drawn their earliest 同様に as their most 非常に／多数の proselytes. The 厳格な，質素な system of morality has, accordingly, been 可決する・採択するd by those sects almost 絶えず, or with very few exceptions; for there have been some. It was the system by which they could best recommend themselves to that order of people to whom they first 提案するd their 計画（する） of reformation upon what had been before 設立するd. Many of them, perhaps the greater part of them, have even endeavoured to 伸び（る） credit by 精製するing upon this 厳格な，質素な system, and by carrying it to some degree of folly and extravagance; and this 過度の rigour has frequently recommended them more than anything else to the 尊敬（する）・点 and veneration of the ありふれた people.

A man of 階級 and fortune is by his 駅／配置する the distinguished member of a 広大な／多数の／重要な society, who …に出席する to every part of his 行為／行う, and who その為に 強いる him to …に出席する to every part of it himself. His 当局 and consideration depend very much upon the 尊敬（する）・点 which this society 耐えるs to him. He dare not do anything which would 不名誉 or discredit him in it, and he is 強いるd to a very strict 観察 of that 種類 of morals, whether 自由主義の or 厳格な，質素な, which the general 同意 of this society 定める／命ずるs to persons of his 階級 and fortune. A man of low 条件, on the contrary, is far from 存在 a distinguished member of any 広大な／多数の／重要な society. While he remains in a country village his 行為／行う may be …に出席するd to, and he may be 強いるd to …に出席する to it himself. In this 状況／情勢, and in this 状況／情勢 only, he may have what is called a character to lose. But as soon as he comes into a 広大な／多数の／重要な city he is sunk in obscurity and 不明瞭. His 行為／行う is 観察するd and …に出席するd to by nobody, and he is therefore very likely to neglect it himself, and to abandon himself to every sort of low profligacy and 副／悪徳行為. He never 現れるs so effectually from this obscurity, his 行為／行う never excites so much the attention of any respectable society, as by his becoming the member of a small 宗教的な sect. He from that moment acquires a degree of consideration which he never had before. All his brother sectaries are, for the credit of the sect, 利益／興味d to 観察する his 行為／行う, and if he gives occasion to any スキャンダル, if he deviates very much from those 厳格な，質素な morals which they almost always 要求する of one another, to punish him by what is always a very 厳しい 罰, even where no civil 影響s …に出席する it, 追放 or excommunication from the sect. In little 宗教的な sects, accordingly, the morals of the ありふれた people have been almost always remarkably 正規の／正選手 and 整然とした; 一般に much more so than in the 設立するd church. The morals of those little sects, indeed, have frequently been rather disagreeably rigorous and un social.

There are two very 平易な and effectual 治療（薬）s, however, by whose 共同の 操作／手術 the 明言する／公表する might, without 暴力／激しさ, 訂正する whatever was unsocial or disagreeably rigorous in the morals of all the little sects into which the country was divided.

The first of those 治療（薬）s is the 熟考する／考慮する of science and philosophy, which the 明言する／公表する might （判決などを）下す almost 全世界の／万国共通の の中で all people of middling or more than middling 階級 and fortune; not by giving salaries to teachers ーするために make them negligent and idle, but by 学校／設けるing some sort of 保護監察, even in the higher and more difficult sciences, to be undergone by every person before he was permitted to 演習 any 自由主義の profession, or before he could be received as a 候補者 for any honourable office of 信用 or 利益（をあげる）. If the 明言する／公表する 課すd upon this order of men the necessity of learning, it would have no occasion to give itself any trouble about 供給するing them with proper teachers. They would soon find better teachers for themselves than any whom the 明言する／公表する could 供給する for them. Science is the 広大な／多数の／重要な antidote to the 毒（薬） of enthusiasm and superstition; and where all the superior 階級s of people were 安全な・保証するd from it, the inferior 階級s could not be much exposed to it.

The second of those 治療（薬）s is the frequency and gaiety of public 転換s. The 明言する／公表する, by encouraging, that is by giving entire liberty to all those who for their own 利益／興味 would 試みる／企てる without スキャンダル or わいせつ, to amuse and コースを変える the people by 絵, poetry, music, dancing; by all sorts of 劇の 代表s and 展示s, would easily dissipate, in the greater part of them, that melancholy and 暗い／優うつな humour which is almost always the nurse of popular superstition and enthusiasm. Public 転換s have always been the 反対するs of dread and 憎悪 to all the fanatical promoters of those popular frenzies. The gaiety and good humour which those 転換s 奮起させる were altogether inconsistent with that temper of mind which was fittest for their 目的, or which they could best work upon. 劇の 代表s, besides, frequently exposing their artifices to public ridicule, and いつかs even to public execration, were upon that account, more than all other 転換s, the 反対するs of their peculiar abhorrence.

In a country where the 法律 favoured the teachers of no one 宗教 more than those of another, it would not be necessary that any of them should have any particular or 即座の dependency upon the 君主 or (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする; or that he should have anything to do either in 任命するing or in 解任するing them from their offices. In such a 状況／情勢 he would have no occasion to give himself any 関心 about them, その上の than to keep the peace の中で them in the same manner as の中で the 残り／休憩（する） of his 支配するs; that is, to 妨げる them from 迫害するing, 乱用ing, or 抑圧するing one another. But it is やめる さもなければ in countries where there is an 設立するd or 治める／統治するing 宗教. The 君主 can in this 事例／患者 never be 安全な・保証する unless he has the means of 影響（力）ing in a かなりの degree the greater part of the teachers of that 宗教.

The clergy of every 設立するd church 構成する a 広大な／多数の／重要な 合併／会社設立. They can 行為／法令／行動する in concert, and 追求する their 利益／興味 upon one 計画（する） and with one spirit, as much as if they were under the direction of one man; and they are frequently, too, under such direction. Their 利益／興味 as an 会社にする／組み込むd 団体／死体 is never the same with that of the 君主, and is いつかs 直接／まっすぐに opposite to it. Their 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益／興味 is to 持続する their 当局 with the people; and this 当局 depends upon the supposed certainty and importance of the whole doctrine which they inculcate, and upon the supposed necessity of 可決する・採択するing every part of it with the most implicit 約束, ーするために 避ける eternal 悲惨. Should the 君主 have the imprudence to appear either to deride or 疑問 himself of the most trifling part of their doctrine, or from humanity 試みる／企てる to 保護する those who did either the one or the other, the punctilious honour of a clergy who have no sort of dependency upon him is すぐに 刺激するd to proscribe him as a profane person, and to 雇う all the terrors of 宗教 ーするために 強いる the people to 移転 their 忠誠 to some more 正統派の and obedient prince. Should he …に反対する any of their pretensions or usurpations, the danger is 平等に 広大な／多数の／重要な. The princes who have dared in this manner to 反逆者／反逆する against the church, over and above this 罪，犯罪 of 反乱 have 一般に been 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金d, too, with the 付加 罪，犯罪 of heresy, notwithstanding their solemn protestations of their 約束 and humble submission to every tenet which she thought proper to 定める／命ずる to them. But the 当局 of 宗教 is superior to every other 当局. The 恐れるs which it 示唆するs 征服する／打ち勝つ all other 恐れるs. When the 権限を与えるd teachers of 宗教 propagate through the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people doctrines 破壊分子 of the 当局 of the 君主, it is by 暴力／激しさ only, or by the 軍隊 of a standing army, that he can 持続する his 当局. Even a standing army cannot in this 事例／患者 give him any 継続している 安全; because if t he 兵士s are not foreigners, which can seldom be the 事例／患者, but drawn from the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, which must almost always be the 事例／患者, they are likely to be soon corrupted by those very doctrines. The 革命s which the turbulence of the Greek clergy was continually occasioning at Constantinople, as long as the eastern empire subsisted; the convulsions which, during the course of several centuries, the turbulence of the Roman clergy was continually occasioning in every part of Europe, 十分に 論証する how 不安定な and insecure must always be the 状況／情勢 of the 君主 who has no proper means of 影響（力）ing the clergy of the 設立するd and 治める／統治するing 宗教 of his country.

Articles of 約束, 同様に as all other spiritual 事柄s, it is evident enough, are not within the proper department of a temporal 君主, who, though he may be very 井戸／弁護士席 qualified for 保護するing, is seldom supposed to be so for 教えるing the people. With regard to such 事柄s, therefore, his 当局 can seldom be 十分な to counterbalance the 部隊d 当局 of the clergy of the 設立するd church. The public tranquillity, however, and his own 安全, may frequently depend upon the doctrines which they may think proper to propagate 関心ing such 事柄s. As he can seldom 直接／まっすぐに …に反対する their 決定／判定勝ち（する）, therefore, with proper 負わせる and 当局, it is necessary that he should be able to 影響（力） it; and be can 影響（力） it only by the 恐れるs and 期待s which he may excite in the greater part of the individuals of the order. Those 恐れるs and 期待s may consist in the 恐れる of deprivation or other 罰, and in the 期待 of その上の preferment.

In all Christian churches the benefices of the clergy are a sort of freeholds which they enjoy, not during 楽しみ, but during life or good behaviour. If they held them by a more 不安定な 任期, and were liable to be turned out upon every slight disobligation either of the 君主 or of his 大臣s, it would perhaps be impossible for them to 持続する their 当局 with the people, who would then consider them as mercenary 扶養家族s upon the 法廷，裁判所, in the 安全 of whose 指示／教授／教育s they could no longer have any 信用／信任. But should the 君主 試みる／企てる irregularly, and by 暴力／激しさ, to 奪う any number of clergymen of their freeholds, on account, perhaps, of their having propagated, with more than ordinary zeal, some factious or seditious doctrine, he would only （判決などを）下す, by such 迫害, both them and their doctrine ten times more popular, and therefore ten times more troublesome and dangerous, than they had been before. 恐れる is in almost all 事例／患者s a wretched 器具 of 政府, and ought in particular never to be 雇うd against any order of men who have the smallest pretensions to independency. To 試みる／企てる to terrify them serves only to irritate their bad humour, and to 確認する them in an 対立 which more gentle usage perhaps might easily induce them either to 軟化する or to lay aside altogether. The 暴力／激しさ which the French 政府 usually 雇うd ーするために 強いる all their 議会s, or 君主 法廷，裁判所s of 司法（官）, to enregister any 人気がない edict, very seldom 後継するd. The means 一般的に 雇うd, however, the 監禁，拘置 of all the refractory members, one would think were forcible enough. The princes of the house of Stewart いつかs 雇うd the like means ーするために 影響（力） some of the members of the 議会 of England; and they 一般に 設立する them 平等に intractable. The 議会 of England is now managed in another manner; and a very small 実験 which the Duke of Choiseul made about twelve years ago upon the 議会 of Paris, 論証するd suff iciently that all the 議会s of フラン might have been managed still more easily in the same manner. That 実験 was not 追求するd. For though 管理／経営 and 説得／派閥 are always the easiest and the safest 器具s of 政府s, as 軍隊 and 暴力／激しさ are the worst and the most dangerous, yet such, it seems, is the natural insolence of man that he almost always disdains to use the good 器具, except when he cannot or dare not use the bad one. The French 政府 could and durst use 軍隊, and therefore disdained to use 管理／経営 and 説得／派閥. But there is no order of men, it appears, I believe, from the experience of all ages, upon whom it is so dangerous, or rather so perfectly ruinous, to 雇う 軍隊 and 暴力／激しさ, as upon the 尊敬（する）・点d clergy of any 設立するd church. The 権利s, the 特権s, the personal liberty of every individual ecclesiastic who is upon good 条件 with his own order are, even in the most despotic 政府s, more 尊敬（する）・点d than those of any other person of nearly equal 階級 and fortune. It is so in every gradation of 先制政治, from that of the gentle and 穏やかな 政府 of Paris to that of the violent and furious 政府 of Constantinople. But though this order of men can 不十分な ever be 軍隊d, they may be managed as easily as any other; and the 安全 of the 君主, 同様に as the public tranquillity, seems to depend very much upon the means which he has of managing them; and those means seem to consist altogether in the preferment which he has to bestow upon them.

In the 古代の 憲法 of the Christian church, the bishop of each diocese was elected by the 共同の 投票（する）s of the clergy and of the people of the episcopal city. The people did not long 保持する their 権利 of 選挙; and while they did 保持する it, they almost always 行為／法令／行動するd under the 影響（力） of the clergy, who in such spiritual 事柄s appeared to be their natural guides. The clergy, however, soon grew 疲れた／うんざりした of the trouble of managing them, and 設立する it easier to elect their own bishops themselves. The abbot, in the same manner, was elected by the 修道士s of the 修道院, at least in the greater part of the abbacies. All the inferior ecclesiastical benefices comprehended within the diocese were collated by the bishop, who bestowed them upon such ecclesiastics as he thought proper. All church preferments were in this manner in the 処分 of the church. The 君主, though he might have some indirect 影響（力） in those 選挙s, and though it was いつかs usual to ask both his 同意 to elect and his approbation of the 選挙, yet had no direct or 十分な means of managing the clergy. The ambition of every clergyman 自然に led him to 支払う／賃金 法廷，裁判所 not so much to his 君主 as to his own order, from which only he could 推定する／予想する preferment.

Through the greater part of Europe the ローマ法王 徐々に drew to himself first the collation of almost all bishoprics and abbacies, or of what were called Consistorial benefices, and afterwards, by さまざまな machinations and pretences, of the greater part of inferior benefices comprehended within each diocese; little more 存在 left to the bishop than what was barely necessary to give him a decent 当局 with his own clergy. By this 協定 the 条件 of the 君主 was still worse than it had been before. The clergy of all the different countries of Europe were thus formed into a sort of spiritual army, 分散させるd in different ４半期/4分の1s, indeed, but of which all the movements and 操作／手術s could now be directed by one 長，率いる, and 行為／行うd upon one uniform 計画（する）. The clergy of each particular country might be considered as a particular detachment of that army, or which the 操作／手術s could easily be supported and seconded by all the other detachments ４半期/4分の1d in the different countries 一連の会議、交渉／完成する about. Each detachment was not only 独立した・無所属 of the 君主 of the country in which it was ４半期/4分の1d, and by which it was 持続するd, but 扶養家族 upon a foreign 君主, who could at any time turn its 武器 against the 君主 of that particular country, and support them by the 武器 of all the other detachments.

Those 武器 were the most formidable that can 井戸／弁護士席 be imagined. In the 古代の 明言する／公表する of Europe, before the 設立 of arts and 製造（する）s, the wealth of the clergy gave them the same sort of 影響（力） over the ありふれた people which that of the 広大な／多数の／重要な barons gave them over their 各々の vassals, tenants, and retainers. In the 広大な／多数の／重要な landed 広い地所s which the mistaken piety both of princes and 私的な persons had bestowed upon the church, 裁判権s were 設立するd of the same 肉親，親類d with those of the 広大な／多数の／重要な barons, and for the same 推論する／理由. In those 広大な／多数の／重要な landed 広い地所s, the clergy, or their （強制）執行官s, could easily keep the peace without the support or 援助 either of the king or of any other person; and neither the king nor any other person could keep the peace there without the support and 援助 of the clergy. The 裁判権s of the clergy, therefore, in their particular baronies or manors, were 平等に 独立した・無所属, and 平等に 排除的 of the 当局 of the king's 法廷，裁判所s, as those of the 広大な／多数の／重要な temporal lords. The tenants of the clergy were, like those of the 広大な／多数の／重要な barons, almost all tenants at will, 完全に 扶養家族 upon their 即座の lords, and therefore liable to be called out at 楽しみ ーするために fight in any quarrel in which the clergy might think proper to engage them. Over and above the rents of those 広い地所s, the clergy 所有するd in the tithes, a very large 部分 of the rents of all the other 広い地所s in every kingdom of Europe. The 歳入s arising from both those 種類 of rents were, the greater part of them, paid in 肉親，親類d, in corn, ワイン, cattle poultry, etc. The 量 越えるd 大いに what the clergy could themselves 消費する; and there were neither arts nor 製造（する）s for the produce of which they could 交流 the 黒字／過剰. The clergy could derive advantage from this 巨大な 黒字／過剰 in no other way than by 雇うing it, as the 広大な／多数の／重要な barons 雇うd the like 黒字／過剰 of their 歳入s, in the most profuse 歓待, and in the most 広範囲にわたる charity. Both the hospita lity and the charity of the 古代の clergy, accordingly, are said to have been very 広大な／多数の／重要な. They not only 持続するd almost the whole poor of every kingdom, but many knights and gentlemen had frequently no other means of subsistence than by travelling about from 修道院 to 修道院, under pretence of devotion, but in reality to enjoy the 歓待 of the clergy. The retainers of some particular prelates were often as 非常に／多数の as those of the greatest lay-lords; and the retainers of all the clergy taken together were, perhaps, more 非常に／多数の than those of all the lay-lords. There was always much more union の中で the clergy than の中で the lay-lords. The former were under a 正規の／正選手 discipline and subordination to the papal 当局. The latter were under no 正規の／正選手 discipline or subordination, but almost always 平等に jealous of one another, and of the king. Though the tenants and retainers of the clergy, therefore, had both together been いっそう少なく 非常に／多数の than those of the 広大な／多数の／重要な lay-lords, and their tenants were probably much いっそう少なく 非常に／多数の, yet their union would have （判決などを）下すd them more formidable. The 歓待 and charity of the clergy, too, not only gave them the 命令（する） of a 広大な／多数の／重要な temporal 軍隊, but 増加するd very much the 負わせる of their spiritual 武器s. Those virtues procured them the highest 尊敬（する）・点 and veneration の中で all the inferior 階級s of people, of whom many were 絶えず, and almost all occasionally, fed by them. Everything belonging or 関係のある to so popular an order, its 所有／入手s, its 特権s, its doctrines, やむを得ず appeared sacred in the 注目する，もくろむs of the ありふれた people, and every 違反 of them, whether real or pretended, the highest 行為／法令／行動する of sacrilegious wickedness and profaneness. In this 明言する／公表する of things, if the 君主 frequently 設立する it difficult to resist the confederacy of a few of the 広大な／多数の／重要な nobility, we cannot wonder that he should find it still more so to resist the 部隊d 軍隊 of the clergy of his own dominions, supported by that of the clergy of all the 隣人ing domi nions. In such circumstances the wonder is, not that he was いつかs 強いるd to 産する／生じる, but that he ever was able to resist.

The 特権 of the clergy in those 古代の times (which to us who live in the 現在の times appear the most absurd), their total 控除 from the 世俗的な 裁判権, for example, or what in England was called the 利益 of the clergy, were the natural or rather the necessary consequences of this 明言する／公表する of things. How dangerous must it have been for the 君主 to 試みる／企てる to punish a clergyman for any 罪，犯罪 whatever, if his own order were 性質の／したい気がして to 保護する him, and to 代表する either the proof as insufficient for 罪人／有罪を宣告するing so 宗教上の a man, or the 罰 as too 厳しい to be （打撃，刑罰などを）与えるd upon one whose person had been （判決などを）下すd sacred by 宗教? The 君主 could, in such circumstances, do no better than leave him to be tried by the ecclesiastical 法廷，裁判所s, who, for the honour of their own order, were 利益／興味d to 抑制する, as much as possible, every member of it from committing enormous 罪，犯罪s, or even from giving occasion to such 甚だしい／１２ダース スキャンダル as might disgust the minds of the people.

In the 明言する／公表する in which things were through the greater part of Europe during the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, and for some time both before and after that period, the 憲法 of the Church of Rome may be considered as the most formidable combination that ever was formed against the 当局 and 安全 of civil 政府, 同様に as against the liberty, 推論する／理由, and happiness of mankind, which can 繁栄する only where civil 政府 is able to 保護する them. In that 憲法 the grossest delusions of superstition were supported in such a manner by the 私的な 利益／興味s of so 広大な／多数の／重要な a number of people as put them out of all danger from any 強襲，強姦 of human 推論する／理由: because though human 推論する／理由 might perhaps have been able to 明かす, even to the 注目する，もくろむs of the ありふれた people, some of the delusions of superstition, it could never have 解散させるd the 関係 of 私的な 利益／興味. Had this 憲法 been attacked by no other enemies but the feeble 成果／努力s of human 推論する／理由, it must have 耐えるd for ever. But that 巨大な and 井戸／弁護士席-built fabric, which all the 知恵 and virtue of man could never have shaken, much いっそう少なく have overturned, was by the natural course of things, first 弱めるd, and afterwards in part destroyed, and is now likely, in the course of a few centuries more, perhaps, to 崩壊する into 廃虚s altogether.

The 漸進的な 改良s of arts, 製造（する）s, and 商業, the same 原因（となる）s which destroyed the 力／強力にする of the 広大な／多数の／重要な barons, destroyed in the same manner, through the greater part of Europe, the whole temporal 力／強力にする of the clergy. In the produce of arts, 製造（する）s, and 商業, the clergy, like the 広大な／多数の／重要な barons, 設立する something for which they could 交流 their rude produce, and その為に discovered the means of spending their whole 歳入s upon their own persons, without giving any かなりの 株 of them to other people. Their charity became 徐々に いっそう少なく 広範囲にわたる, their 歓待 いっそう少なく 自由主義の or いっそう少なく profuse. Their retainers became その結果 いっそう少なく 非常に／多数の, and by degrees dwindled away altogether. The clergy too, like the 広大な／多数の／重要な barons, wished to get a better rent from their landed 広い地所s, ーするために spend it, in the same manner, upon the gratification of their own 私的な vanity and folly. But this 増加する of rent could be got only by 認めるing 賃貸し（する）s to their tenants, who その為に became in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 独立した・無所属 of them. The 関係 of 利益／興味 which bound the inferior 階級s of people to the clergy were in this manner 徐々に broken and 解散させるd. They were even broken and 解散させるd sooner than those which bound the same 階級s of people to the 広大な／多数の／重要な barons: because the benefices of the church 存在, the greater part of them, much smaller than the 広い地所s of the 広大な／多数の／重要な barons, the possessor of each benefice was much sooner able to spend the whole of its 歳入 upon his own person. During the greater part of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the 力／強力にする of the 広大な／多数の／重要な barons was, through the greater part of Europe, in 十分な vigour. But the temporal 力／強力にする of the clergy, the 絶対の 命令（する） which they had once had over the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, was very much decayed. The 力／強力にする of the church was by that time very nearly 減ずるd through the greater part of Europe to what arose from her spiritual 当局; and even that spiritual 当局 was much 弱めるd when it 中止するd to be supported b y the charity and 歓待 of the clergy. The inferior 階級s of people no longer looked upon that order, as they had done before, as the comforters of their 苦しめる, and the relievers of their indigence. On the contrary, they were 刺激するd and disgusted by the vanity, 高級な, and expense of the richer clergy, who appeared to spend upon their own 楽しみs what had always before been regarded as the patrimony of the poor.

In this 状況／情勢 of things, the 君主s in the different 明言する／公表するs of Europe endeavoured to 回復する the 影響（力） which they had once had in the 処分 of the 広大な／多数の／重要な benefices of the church, by procuring to the deans and 一時期／支部s of each diocese the 復古／返還 of their 古代の 権利 of electing the bishop, and to the 修道士s of each abbacy that of electing the abbot. The re-設立するing of this 古代の order was the 反対する of several 法令s 制定するd in England during the course of the fourteenth century, 特に of what is called the 法令 of Provisors; and of the Pragmatic 許可／制裁 設立するd in フラン in the fifteenth century. ーするために （判決などを）下す the 選挙 valid, it was necessary that the 君主 should both 同意 to it beforehand, and afterwards 認可する of the person elected; and though the 選挙 was still supposed to be 解放する／自由な, he had, however, all the indirect means which his 状況／情勢 やむを得ず afforded him of 影響（力）ing the clergy in his own dominions. Other 規則s of a 類似の 傾向 were 設立するd in other parts of Europe. But the 力／強力にする of the ローマ法王 in the collation of the 広大な／多数の／重要な benefices of the church seems, before the Reformation, to have been nowhere so effectually and so universally 抑制するd as in フラン and England. The Concordat afterwards, in the sixteenth century, gave to the kings of フラン the 絶対の 権利 of 現在のing to all the 広大な／多数の／重要な, or what are called the consistorial, benefices of the Gallican Church.

Since the 設立 of the Pragmatic 許可／制裁 and of the Concordat, the clergy of フラン have in general shown いっそう少なく 尊敬（する）・点 to the 法令s of the papal 法廷，裁判所 than the clergy of any other カトリック教徒 country. In all the 論争s which their 君主 has had with the ローマ法王, they have almost 絶えず taken party with the former. This independency of the clergy of フラン upon the 法廷，裁判所 of Rome seems to be principally 設立するd upon the Pragmatic 許可／制裁 and the Concordat. In the earlier periods of the 君主国, the clergy of フラン appear to have been as much 充てるd to the ローマ法王 as those of any other country. When Robert, the second prince of the Capetian race, was most 不正に excommunicated by the 法廷，裁判所 of Rome, his own servants, it is said, threw the victuals which （機の）カム from his （米）棚上げする／（英）提議する to the dogs, and 辞退するd to taste anything themselves which little been 汚染するd by the 接触する of a person in his 状況／情勢. They were taught to do so, it may very 安全に be 推定するd, by the clergy of his own dominions.

The （人命などを）奪う，主張する of collating to the 広大な／多数の／重要な benefices of the church, a （人命などを）奪う，主張する in defence of which the 法廷，裁判所 of Rome had frequently shaken, and いつかs overturned the 王位s of some of the greatest 君主s in Christendom, was in this manner either 抑制するd or 修正するd, or given up altogether, in many different parts of Europe, even before the time of the Reformation. As the clergy had now いっそう少なく 影響（力） over the people, so the 明言する／公表する had more 影響（力） over the clergy. The clergy, therefore, had both いっそう少なく 力／強力にする and いっそう少なく inclination to 乱す the 明言する／公表する.

The 当局 of the Church of Rome was in this 明言する／公表する of declension when the 論争s which gave birth to the Reformation began in Germany, and soon spread themselves through every part of Europe. The new doctrines were everywhere received with a high degree of popular favour. They were propagated with all that enthusiastic zeal which 一般的に animates the spirit of party when it attacks 設立するd 当局. The teachers of those doctrines, though perhaps in other 尊敬（する）・点s not more learned than many of the divines who defended the 設立するd church, seem in general to have been better 熟知させるd with ecclesiastical history, and with the origin and 進歩 of that system of opinions upon which the 当局 of the church was 設立するd, and they had その為に some advantage in almost every 論争. The 緊縮 of their manners gave them 当局 with the ありふれた people, who contrasted the strict regularity of their 行為／行う with the disorderly lives of the greater part of their own clergy. They 所有するd, too, in a much higher degree than their adversaries all the arts of 人気 and of 伸び（る）ing proselytes, arts which the lofty and dignified sons of the church had long neglected as 存在 to them in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 useless. The 推論する／理由 of the new doctrines recommended them to some, their novelty to many; the 憎悪 and contempt of the 設立するd clergy to a still greater number; but the 熱心な, 熱烈な, and fanatical, though frequently coarse and rustic, eloquence with which they were almost everywhere inculcated, recommended them to by far the greatest number.

The success of the new doctrines was almost everywhere so 広大な／多数の／重要な that the princes who at that time happened to be on bad 条件 with the 法廷，裁判所 of Rome were by means of them easily enabled, in their own dominions, to overturn the church, which, having lost the 尊敬（する）・点 and veneration of the inferior 階級s of people, could make 不十分な any 抵抗. The 法廷，裁判所 of Rome had disobliged some of the smaller princes in the northern parts of Germany, whom it had probably considered as too insignificant to be 価値（がある） the managing. They universally, therefore, 設立するd the Reformation in their own dominions. The tyranny of Christian II and of Troll, 大司教 of Upsala, enabled Gustavus Vasa to 追放する them both from Sweden. The ローマ法王 favoured the tyrant and the 大司教, and Gustavus Vasa 設立する no difficulty in 設立するing the Reformation in Sweden. Christian II was afterwards 退位させる／宣誓証言するd from the 王位 of Denmark, where his 行為／行う had （判決などを）下すd him as 嫌悪すべき as in Sweden. The ローマ法王, however, was still 性質の／したい気がして to favour him, and Frederick of Holstein, who had 機動力のある the 王位 in his stead, 復讐d himself by に引き続いて the example of Gustavus Vasa. The 治安判事s of Berne and Zurich, who had no particular quarrel with the ローマ法王, 設立するd with 広大な／多数の／重要な 緩和する the Reformation in their 各々の cantons, where just before some of the clergy had, by an imposture somewhat grosser than ordinary, （判決などを）下すd the whole order both 嫌悪すべき and contemptible.

In this 批判的な 状況／情勢 of its 事件／事情／状勢s, the papal 法廷，裁判所 was at 十分な 苦痛s to cultivate the friendship of the powerful 君主s of フラン and Spain, of whom the latter was at that time Emperor of Germany. With their 援助 it was enabled, though not without 広大な／多数の／重要な difficulty and much 流血／虐殺, either to 抑える altogether or to 妨害する very much the 進歩 of the Reformation in their dominions. It was 井戸／弁護士席 enough inclined, too, to be complaisant to the King of England. But from the circumstances of the times, it could not be so without giving offence to a still greater 君主, Charles V, King of Spain and Emperor of Germany. Henry VIII accordingly, though he did not embrace himself the greater part of the doctrines of the Reformation, was yet enabled, by their general prevalence, to 抑える all the 修道院s, and to 廃止する the 当局 of the Church of Rome in his dominions. That he should go so far, though he went no その上の, gave some satisfaction to the patrons of the Reformation, who having got 所有／入手 of the 政府 in the 統治する of his son and 後継者, 完全にするd without any difficulty the work which Henry VIII had begun.

In some countries, as in Scotland, where the 政府 was weak, 人気がない, and not very 堅固に 設立するd, the Reformation was strong enough to overturn, not only the church, but the 明言する／公表する likewise for 試みる／企てるing to support the church.

の中で the 信奉者s of the Reformation 分散させるd in all the different countries of Europe, there was no general 法廷 which, like that of the 法廷，裁判所 of Rome, or an oecumenical 会議, could settle all 論争s の中で them, and with irresistible 当局 定める／命ずる to all of them the 正確な 限界s of orthodoxy. When the 信奉者s of the Reformation in one country, therefore, happened to 異なる from their brethren in another, as they had no ありふれた 裁判官 to 控訴，上告 to, the 論争 could never be decided; and many such 論争s arose の中で them. Those 関心ing the 政府 of the church, and the 権利 of conferring ecclesiastical benefices, were perhaps the most 利益／興味ing to the peace and 福利事業 of civil society. They gave birth accordingly to the two 主要な／長／主犯 parties of sects の中で the 信奉者s of the Reformation, the Lutheran and Calvinistic sects, the only sects の中で them of which the doctrine and discipline have ever yet been 設立するd by 法律 in any part of Europe.

The 信奉者s of Luther, together with what is called the Church of England, 保存するd more or いっそう少なく of the episcopal 政府, 設立するd subordination の中で the clergy, gave the 君主 the 処分 of all the bishoprics and other consistorial benefices within his dominions, and その為に （判決などを）下すd him the real 長，率いる of the church; and without 奪うing the bishop of the 権利 of collating to the smaller benefices within his diocese, they, even to those benefices, not only 認める, but favoured the 権利 of 贈呈 both in the 君主 and in all other lay-patrons. This system of church 政府 was from the beginning favourable to peace and good order, and to submission to the civil 君主. It has never, accordingly, been the occasion of any tumult or civil commotion in any country in which it has once been 設立するd. The Church of England in particular has always valued herself, with 広大な／多数の／重要な 推論する／理由, upon the unexceptionable 忠義 of her 原則s. Under such a 政府 the clergy 自然に endeavour to recommend themselves to the 君主, to the 法廷，裁判所, and to the nobility and gentry of the country, by whose 影響（力） they 主として 推定する／予想する to 得る preferment. They 支払う／賃金 法廷，裁判所 to those patrons いつかs, no 疑問, by the vilest flattery and assentation, but frequently, too, by cultivating all those arts which best deserve, and which are therefore most likely to 伸び（る） them the esteem of people of 階級 and fortune; by their knowledge in all the different 支店s of useful and ornamental learning, by the decent liberality of their manners, by the social good humour of their conversation, and by their avowed contempt of those absurd and hypocritical 緊縮s which fanatics inculcate and pretend to practise, ーするために draw upon themselves the veneration, and upon the greater part of men of 階級 and fortune, who avow that they do not practise them, the abhorrence of the ありふれた people. Such a clergy, however, while they 支払う／賃金 their 法廷，裁判所 in this manner to the higher 階級s of life, are very apt to neglect altogether the means of 持続するing their 影響（力） and 当局 with the lower. They are listened to, esteemed, and 尊敬（する）・点d by their superiors; but before their inferiors they are frequently incapable of defending, effectually and to the 有罪の判決 of such hearers, their own sober and 穏健な doctrines against the most ignorant 熱中している人 who chooses to attack them.

The 信奉者s of Zwingli, or more 適切に those of Calvin, on the contrary, bestowed upon the people of each parish, whenever the church became 空いている, the 権利 of electing their own 牧師, and 設立するd at the same time the most perfect equality の中で the clergy. The former part of this 会・原則, as long as it remained in vigour, seems to have been 生産力のある of nothing but disorder and 混乱, and to have tended 平等に to corrupt the morals both of the clergy and of the people. The latter part seems never to have had any 影響s but what were perfectly agreeable.

As long as the people of each parish 保存するd the 権利 of electing their own 牧師s, they 行為／法令／行動するd almost always under the 影響（力） of the clergy, and 一般に of the most factious and fanatical of the order. The clergy, ーするために 保存する their 影響（力） in those popular 選挙s, became, or 影響する／感情d to become, many of them, fanatics themselves, encouraged fanaticism の中で the people, and gave the preference almost always to the most fanatical 候補者. So small a 事柄 as the 任命 of a parish priest occasioned almost always a violent contest, not only in one parish, but in all the 隣人ing parishes, who seldom failed to 参加する the quarrel. When the parish happened to be 据えるd in a 広大な／多数の／重要な city, it divided all the inhabitants into two parties; and when that city happened either to 構成する itself a little 共和国, or to be the 長，率いる and 資本／首都 of a little 共和国, as is the 事例／患者 with many of the かなりの cities in Switzerland and Holland, every paltry 論争 of this 肉親，親類d, over and above exasperating the animosity of all their other 派閥s, 脅すd to leave behind it both a new schism in the church, and a new 派閥 in the 明言する／公表する. In those small 共和国s, therefore, the 治安判事 very soon 設立する it necessary, for the sake of 保存するing the public peace, to assume to himself the 権利 of 現在のing to all 空いている benefices. In Scotland, the most 広範囲にわたる country in which this Presbyterian form of church 政府 has ever been 設立するd, the 権利s of patronage were in 影響 廃止するd by the 行為／法令／行動する which 設立するd Presbytery in the beginning of the 統治する of William III. That 行為／法令／行動する at least put it in the 力／強力にする of 確かな classes of people in each parish to 購入（する）, for a very small price, the 権利 of electing their own 牧師. The 憲法 which this 行為／法令／行動する 設立するd was 許すd to subsist for about two-and-twenty years, but was 廃止するd by the 10th of Queen Anne, c. 12, on account of the 混乱s and disorders which this more popular 方式 of, 選挙 had almost e verywhere occasioned. In so 広範囲にわたる a country as Scotland, however, a tumult in a remote parish was not so likely to give 騒動 to 政府 as in a smaller 明言する／公表する. The 10th of Queen Anne 回復するd the 権利s of patronage. But though in Scotland the 法律 gives the benefice without any exception to the person 現在のd by the patron, yet the church 要求するs いつかs (for she has not in this 尊敬（する）・点 been very uniform in her 決定／判定勝ち（する）s) a 確かな concurrence of the people before she will 会談する upon the presentee what is called the cure of souls, or the ecclesiastical 裁判権 in the parish. She いつかs at least, from an 影響する／感情d 関心 for the peace of the parish, 延期するs the 解決／入植地 till this concurrence can be procured. The 私的な tampering of some of the 隣人ing clergy, いつかs to procure, but more frequently to 妨げる, this concurrence, and the popular arts which they cultivate ーするために enable them upon such occasions to tamper more effectually, are perhaps the 原因（となる）s which principally keep up whatever remains of the old fanatical spirit, either in the clergy or in the people of Scotland.

The equality which the Presbyterian form of church 政府 設立するs の中で the clergy, consists, first, in the equality of 当局 or ecclesiastical 裁判権; and, secondly, in the equality of benefice. In all Presbyterian churches the equality of 当局 is perfect: that of benefice is not so. The difference, however, between one benefice and another is seldom so かなりの as 一般的に to tempt the possessor even of the small one to 支払う／賃金 法廷，裁判所 to his patron by the vile arts of flattery and assentation ーするために get a better. In all the Presbyterian churches, where the 権利s of patronage are 完全に 設立するd, it is by nobler and better arts that the 設立するd clergy in general endeavour to 伸び（る） the favour of their superiors; by their learning, by the irreproachable regularity of their life, and by the faithful and diligent 発射する／解雇する of their 義務. Their patrons even frequently complain of the independency of their spirit, which they are apt to construe into ingratitude for past favours, but which at worst, perhaps, is seldom any more than that 無関心／冷淡 which 自然に arises from the consciousness that no その上の favours of the 肉親，親類d are ever to be 推定する／予想するd. There is 不十分な perhaps to be 設立する anywhere in Europe a more learned, decent, 独立した・無所属, and respectable 始める，決める of men than the greater part of the Presbyterian clergy of Holland, Geneva, Switzerland, and Scotland.

Where the church benefices are all nearly equal, 非，不，無 of them can be very 広大な／多数の／重要な, and this mediocrity of benefice, though it may no 疑問 be carried, too far, has, however, some very agreeable 影響s. Nothing but the most 模範的な morals can give dignity to a man of small fortune. The 副／悪徳行為s of levity and vanity やむを得ず （判決などを）下す him ridiculous, and are, besides, almost as ruinous to him as they are to the ありふれた people. In his own 行為／行う, therefore, he is 強いるd to follow that system of morals which the ありふれた people 尊敬（する）・点 the most. He 伸び（る）s their esteem and affection by that 計画（する） of life which his own 利益／興味 and 状況／情勢 would lead him to follow. The ありふれた people look upon him with that 親切 with which we 自然に regard one who approaches somewhat to our own 条件, but who, we think, せねばならない be in a higher. Their 親切 自然に 刺激するs his 親切. He becomes careful to 教える them, and attentive to 補助装置 and relieve them. He does not even despise the prejudices of people who are 性質の／したい気がして to be so favourable to him, and never 扱う／治療するs them with those contemptuous and arrogant 空気／公表するs which we so often 会合，会う with in the proud 高官s of opulent and 井戸／弁護士席-endowed churches. The Presbyterian clergy, accordingly, have more 影響（力） over the minds of the ありふれた people than perhaps the clergy of any other 設立するd church. It is accordingly in Presbyterian countries only that we ever find the ありふれた people 変えるd, without 迫害, 完全に, and almost to a man, to the 設立するd church.

In countries where church benefices are the greater part of them very 穏健な, a 議長，司会を務める in a university is 一般に a better 設立 than a church benefice. The universities have, in this 事例／患者, the 選ぶing and choosing of their members from all the churchmen of the country, who, in every country, 構成する by far the most 非常に／多数の class of men of letters. Where church benefices, on the contrary, are many of them very かなりの, the church 自然に draws from the universities the greater part of their 著名な men of letters, who 一般に find some patron who does himself honour by procuring them church preferment. In the former 状況／情勢 we are likely to find the universities filled with the most 著名な men of letters that are to be 設立する in the country. In the latter we are likely to find few 著名な men の中で them, and those few の中で the youngest members of the society, who are likely, too, to be drained away from it before they can have acquired experience and knowledge enough to be of much use to it. It is 観察するd by Mr. de Voltaire, that Father Porrie, a Jesuit of no 広大な／多数の／重要な eminence in the 共和国 of letters, was the only professor they had ever had in フラン whose 作品 were 価値（がある） the reading. In a country which has produced so many 著名な men of letters, it must appear somewhat singular that 不十分な one of them should have been a professor in a university. The famous Gassendi was, in the beginning of his life, a professor in the University of Aix. Upon the first 夜明けing of his genius, it was 代表するd to him that by going into the church he could easily find a much more 静かな and comfortable subsistence, 同様に as a better 状況／情勢 for 追求するing his 熟考する／考慮するs; and he すぐに followed the advice. The 観察 of Mr. de Voltaire may be 適用するd, I believe, not only to フラン, but to all other Roman カトリック教徒 countries. We very rarely find, in any of them, an 著名な man of letters who is a professor in a university, except, perhaps, in the professions of 法律 and physic; professions from which the church is not so likely to draw them. After the Church of Rome, that of England is by far the richest and best endowed church in Christendom. In England, accordingly, the church is continually draining the universities of all their best and ablest members; and an old college 教える, who is known and distinguished in Europe as an 著名な man of letters, is as rarely to be 設立する there as in any Roman カトリック教徒 country. In Geneva, on the contrary, in the Protestant cantons of Switzerland, in the Protestant countries of Germany, in Holland, in Scotland, in Sweden, and Denmark, the most 著名な men of letters whom those countries have produced, have, not all indeed, but the far greater part of them, been professors in universities. In those countries the universities are continually draining the church of all its most 著名な men of letters.

It may, perhaps, be 価値（がある） while to 発言／述べる that, if we 推定する／予想する the poets, a few orators, and a few historians, the far greater part of the other 著名な men of letters, both of Greece and Rome, appear to have been either public or 私的な teachers; 一般に either of philosophy or of rhetoric. This 発言／述べる will be 設立する to 持つ／拘留する true from the days of Lysias and Isocrates, of Plato and Aristotle, 負かす／撃墜する to those of Plutarch and Epictetus, of Suetonius and Quintilian. To 課す upon any man the necessity of teaching, year after year, any particular 支店 of science, seems, in reality, to be the most effectual method for （判決などを）下すing him 完全に master of it himself. By 存在 強いるd to go every year over the same ground, if he is good for anything, he やむを得ず becomes, in a few years, 井戸／弁護士席 熟知させるd with every part of it: and if upon any particular point he should form too 迅速な an opinion one year, when he comes in the course of his lectures to 再考する the same 支配する the year thereafter, he is very likely to 訂正する it. As to be a teacher of science is certainly the natural 雇用 of a mere man of letters, so is it likewise, perhaps, the education which is most likely to （判決などを）下す him a man of solid learning and knowledge. The mediocity of church benefices 自然に tends to draw the greater part of men of letters, in the country where it takes place, to the 雇用 in which they can be the most useful to the public, and, at the same time, to give them the best education, perhaps, they are 有能な of receiving. It tends to （判決などを）下す their learning both as solid as possible, and as useful as possible.

The 歳入 of every 設立するd church, such parts of it excepted as may arise from particular lands or manors, is a 支店, it せねばならない be 観察するd, of the general 歳入 of the 明言する／公表する which is thus コースを変えるd to a 目的 very different from the defence of the 明言する／公表する. The tithe, for example, is a real land-税金, which puts it out of the 力／強力にする of the proprietors of land to 与える／捧げる so 大部分は に向かって the defence of the 明言する／公表する as they さもなければ might be able to do. The rent of land, however, is, によれば some, the 単独の 基金, and, によれば others, the 主要な／長／主犯 基金, from which, in all 広大な／多数の／重要な 君主国s, the exigencies of the 明言する／公表する must be 最終的に 供給（する）d. The more of this 基金 that is given to the church, the いっそう少なく, it is evident, can be spared to the 明言する／公表する. It may be laid 負かす／撃墜する as a 確かな maxim that, all other things 存在 supposed equal, the richer the church, the poorer must やむを得ず be, either the 君主 on the one 手渡す, or the people on the other; and, in all 事例／患者s, the いっそう少なく able must the 明言する／公表する be to defend itself. In several Protestant countries, 特に in all the Protestant cantons of Switzerland, the 歳入 which anciently belonged to the Roman カトリック教徒 Church, the tithes and church lands, has been 設立する a 基金 十分な, not only to afford competent salaries to the 設立するd clergy, but to defray, with little or no 新規加入, all the other expenses of the 明言する／公表する. The 治安判事s of the powerful canton of Berne, in particular, have 蓄積するd out of the 貯金 from this 基金 a very large sum, supposed to 量 to several millions, part of which is deposited in a public treasure, and part is placed at 利益／興味 in what are called the public 基金s of the different indebted nations of Europe; 主として in those of フラン and 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. What may be the 量 of the whole expense which the church, either of Berne, or of any other Protestant canton, costs the 明言する／公表する, I do not pretend to know. By a very exact account it appears that, in 1755, the whole 歳入 of the clergy of the Chu rch of Scotland, 含むing their glebe or church lands, and the rent of their manses or dwelling-houses, 概算の によれば a reasonable valuation, 量d only to L68,514 1s. 5 1/12d. This very 穏健な 歳入 affords a decent subsistence to nine hundred and forty-four 大臣s. The whole expense of the church, 含むing what is occasionally laid out for the building and 賠償 of churches, and of the manses of 大臣s, cannot 井戸／弁護士席 be supposed to 越える eighty or eighty-five thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs a year. The most opulent church in Christendom does not 持続する better the uniformity of 約束, the fervour of devotion, the spirit of order, regularity, and 厳格な，質素な morals in the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, than this very 貧しく endowed Church of Scotland. All the good 影響s, both civil and 宗教的な, which an 設立するd church can be supposed to produce, are produced by it as 完全に as by any other. The greater part of the Protestant churches of Switzerland, which in general are not better endowed than the Church of Scotland, produce those 影響s in a still higher degree. In the greater part of the Protestant cantons there is not a 選び出す／独身 person to be 設立する who does not profess himself to be of the 設立するd church. If he professes himself to be of any other, indeed, the 法律 強いるs him to leave the canton. But so 厳しい, or rather indeed so oppressive a 法律, could never have been 遂行する／発効させるd in such 解放する／自由な countries had not the diligence of the clergy beforehand 変えるd to the 設立するd church the whole 団体／死体 of the people, with the exception of, perhaps, a few individuals only. In some parts of Switzerland, accordingly, where, from the 偶発の union of a Protestant and Roman カトリック教徒 country, the 転換 has not been so 完全にする, both 宗教s are not only 許容するd but 設立するd by 法律.

The proper 業績／成果 of every service seems to 要求する that its 支払う／賃金 or recompense should be, as 正確に／まさに as possible, 割合d to the nature of the service. If any service is very much underpaid, it is very apt to 苦しむ by the meanness and incapacity of the greater part of those who are 雇うd in it. If it is very much overpaid, it is apt to 苦しむ, perhaps, still more by their 怠慢，過失 and idleness. A man of a large 歳入, whatever may be his profession, thinks he せねばならない live like other men of large 歳入s, and to spend a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of his time in festivity, in vanity, and in dissipation. But in a clergyman this train of life not only 消費するs the time which せねばならない be 雇うd in the 義務s of his 機能（する）／行事, but in the 注目する，もくろむs of the ありふれた people destroys almost 完全に that sanctity of character which can alone enable him to 成し遂げる those 義務s with proper 負わせる and 当局.

Part 4: Of the Expense of Supporting the Dignity of the 君主

In an opulent and 改善するd society, where all the different orders of people are growing every day more expensive in their houses, in their furniture, in their （米）棚上げする／（英）提議するs, in their dress, and in their equipage, it cannot 井戸／弁護士席 be 推定する／予想するd that the 君主 should alone 持つ／拘留する out against the fashion. He 自然に, therefore, or rather やむを得ず, becomes more expensive in all those different articles too. His dignity even seems to 要求する that he should become so.

As in point of dignity a 君主 is more raised above his 支配するs than the 長，指導者 治安判事 of any 共和国 is ever supposed to be above his fellow-国民s, so a greater expense is necessary for supporting that higher dignity. We 自然に 推定する／予想する more splendour in the 法廷，裁判所 of a king than in the mansion-house of a doge or burgomaster.

The expense of the 行政 of 司法（官）, too, may, no 疑問, be considered as laid out for the 利益 of the whole society. There is no impropriety, therefore, in its 存在 defrayed by the general 出資／貢献 of the whole society. The persons, however, who gave occasion to this expense are those who, by their 不正 in one way or another, make it necessary to 捜し出す 是正する or 保護 from the 法廷，裁判所s of 司法（官）. The persons again most すぐに 利益d by this expense are those whom the 法廷，裁判所s of 司法（官） either 回復する to their 権利s or 持続する in their 権利s. The expense of the 行政 of 司法（官）, therefore, may very 適切に be defrayed by the particular 出資／貢献 of one or other, or both, of those two different 始める，決めるs of persons, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as different occasions may 要求する, that is, by the 料金s of 法廷，裁判所. It cannot be necessary to have 頼みの綱 to the general 出資／貢献 of the whole society, except for the 有罪の判決 of those 犯罪のs who have not themselves any 広い地所 or 基金 十分な for 支払う／賃金ing those 料金s.

Those 地元の or 地方の expenses of which the 利益 is 地元の or 地方の (what is laid out, for example, upon the police of a particular town or 地区) せねばならない be defrayed by a 地元の or 地方の 歳入, and せねばならない be no 重荷（を負わせる） upon the general 歳入 of the society. It is 不正な that the whole society should 与える／捧げる に向かって an expense of which the 利益 is 限定するd to a part of the society.

The expense of 持続するing good roads and communications is, no 疑問, 有益な to the whole society, and may, therefore, without any 不正. be defrayed by the general 出資／貢献 of the whole society. This expense, however, is most すぐに and 直接／まっすぐに 有益な to those who travel or carry goods from one place to another, and to those who 消費する such goods. The turnpike （死傷者）数s in England, and the 義務s called peages in other countries, lay it altogether upon those two different 始める，決めるs of people, and その為に 発射する／解雇する the general 歳入 of the society from a very かなりの 重荷（を負わせる）.

The expense of the 会・原則s for education and 宗教的な 指示／教授／教育 is likewise, no 疑問, 有益な to the whole society, and may, therefore, without 不正, be defrayed by the general 出資／貢献 of the whole society. This expense, however, might perhaps with equal propriety, and even with some advantage, be defrayed altogether by those who receive the 即座の 利益 of such education and 指示／教授／教育, or by the voluntary 出資／貢献 of those who think they have occasion for either the one or the other.

When the 会・原則s or public 作品 which are 有益な to the whole society either cannot be 持続するd altogether, or are not 持続するd altogether by the 出資／貢献 of such particular members of the society as are most すぐに 利益d by them, the 欠陥／不足 must in most 事例／患者s be made up by the general 出資／貢献 of the whole society. The general 歳入 of the society, over and above defraying the expense of defending the society, and of supporting the dignity of the 長，指導者 治安判事, must （不足などを）補う for the 欠陥／不足 of many particular 支店s of 歳入. The sources of this general or public 歳入 I shall endeavour to explain in the に引き続いて 一時期／支部.