調書をとる／予約する Five, 一時期／支部 I, part 1 & 2

• Of the Expences of the 君主 or 連邦／共和国
  
• Part 1. Of the Expence of Defence
  
• Part 2. Of the Expence of 司法（官）

一時期／支部 I
Of the Expenses of the 君主 or 連邦／共和国

Part 1: Of the Expense of Defence

の中で nations of hunters, the lowest and rudest 明言する／公表する of society, such as we find it の中で the native tribes of North America, every man is a 軍人 同様に as a hunter. When he goes to war, either to defend his society or to 復讐 the 傷害s which have been done to it by other societies, he 持続するs himself by his own 労働 in the same manner as when he lives at home. His society, for in this 明言する／公表する of things there is 適切に neither 君主 nor 連邦／共和国, is at no sort of expense, either to 準備する him for the field, or to 持続する him while he is in it.

の中で nations of shepherds, a more 前進するd 明言する／公表する of society, such as we find it の中で the Tartars and Arabs, every man is, in the same manner, a 軍人. Such nations have 一般的に no 直す／買収する，八百長をするd habitation, but live either in テントs or in a sort of covered waggons which are easily 輸送（する）d from place to place. The whole tribe or nation changes its 状況／情勢 によれば the different seasons of the year, 同様に as によれば other 事故s. When its herds and flocks have 消費するd the forage of one part of the country, it 除去するs to another, and from that to a third. In the 乾燥した，日照りの season it comes 負かす／撃墜する to the banks of the rivers; in the wet season it retires to the upper country. When such a nation goes to war, the 軍人s will not 信用 their herds and flocks to the feeble defence of their old men, their women and children; and their old men, their women and children, will not be left behind without defence and without subsistence. The whole nation, besides, 存在 accustomed to a wandering life, even in time of peace, easily takes the field in time of war. Whether it marches as an army, or moves about as a company of herdsmen, the way of life is nearly the same, though the 反対する 提案するd by it be very different. They all go to war together, therefore, and every one does 同様に as he can. の中で the Tartars, even the women have been frequently known to engage in 戦う／戦い. If they 征服する／打ち勝つ, whatever belongs to the 敵意を持った tribe is the recompense of the victory. But if they are vanquished, all is lost, and not only their herds and flocks, but their women and children, become the booty of the 征服者／勝利者. Even the greater part of those who 生き残る the 活動／戦闘 are 強いるd to 服従させる／提出する to him for the sake of 即座の subsistence. The 残り／休憩（する） are 一般的に dissipated and 分散させるd in the 砂漠.

The ordinary life, the ordinary 演習s of a Tartar or Arab, 準備する him 十分に for war. Running, 格闘するing, cudgel-playing, throwing the javelin, 製図／抽選 the 屈服する, etc., are the ありふれた pastimes of those who live in the open 空気／公表する, and are all of them the images of war. When a Tartar or Arab 現実に goes to war, he is 持続するd by his own herds and flocks which he carries with him in the same manner as in peace. His 長，指導者 or 君主, for those nations have all 長，指導者s or 君主s, is at no sort of expense in 準備するing him for the field; and when he is in it the chance of plunder is the only 支払う／賃金 which he either 推定する／予想するs or 要求するs.

An army of hunters can seldom 越える two or three hundred men. The 不安定な subsistence which the chase affords could seldom 許す a greater number to keep together for any かなりの time. An army of shepherds, on the contrary, may いつかs 量 to two or three hundred thousand. As long as nothing stops their 進歩, as long as they can go on from one 地区, of which they have 消費するd the forage, to another which is yet entire, there seems to be 不十分な any 限界 to the number who can march on together. A nation of hunters can never be formidable to the civilised nations in their neighbourhood. A nation of shepherds may. Nothing can be more contemptible than an Indian war in North America. Nothing, on the contrary, can be more dreadful than Tartar 侵略 has frequently been in Asia. The judgment of Thucydides, that both Europe and Asia could not resist the Scythians 部隊d, has been 立証するd by the experience of all ages. The inhabitants of the 広範囲にわたる but defenceless plains of Scythia or Tartary have been frequently 部隊d under the dominion of the 長，指導者 of some 征服する／打ち勝つing horde or 一族／派閥, and the havoc and 荒廃 of Asia have always signalized their union. The inhabitants of the inhospitable 砂漠s of Arabia, the other 広大な／多数の／重要な nation of shepherds, have never been 部隊d but once; under Mahomet and his 即座の 後継者s. Their union, which was more the 影響 of 宗教的な enthusiasm than of conquest, was signalized in the same manner. If the 追跡（する）ing nations of America should ever become shepherds, their neighbourhood would be much more dangerous to the European 植民地s than it is at 現在の.

In a yet more 前進するd 明言する／公表する of society, の中で those nations of husbandmen who have little foreign 商業, and no other 製造（する）s but those coarse and 世帯 ones which almost every 私的な family 準備するs for its own use, every man, in the same manner, either is a 軍人 or easily becomes such. They who live by 農業 一般に pass the whole day in the open 空気／公表する, exposed to all the inclemencies of the seasons. The hardiness of their ordinary life 準備するs them for the 疲労，（軍の）雑役s of war, to some of which their necessary 占領／職業s 耐える a 広大な／多数の／重要な analogy. The necessary 占領／職業 of a ditcher 準備するs him to work in the ざん壕s, and to 防備を堅める／強化する a （軍の）野営地，陣営 同様に as to enclose a field. The ordinary pastimes of such husbandmen are the same as those of shepherds, and are in the same manner the images of war. But as husbandmen have いっそう少なく leisure than shepherds, they are not so frequently 雇うd in those pastimes. They are 兵士s, but 兵士s not やめる so much masters of their 演習. Such as they are, however, it seldom costs the 君主 or 連邦／共和国 any expense to 準備する them for the field.

農業, even in its rudest and lowest 明言する／公表する, supposes a 解決／入植地: some sort of 直す／買収する，八百長をするd habitation which cannot be abandoned without 広大な／多数の／重要な loss. When a nation of mere husbandmen, therefore, goes to war, the whole people cannot take the field together. The old men, the women and children, at least, must remain at home to take care of the habitation. All the men of the 軍の age, however, may take the field, and, in small nations of this 肉親，親類d, have frequently done so. In every nation the men of the 軍の age are supposed to 量 to about a fourth or a fifth part of the whole 団体／死体 of the people. If the （選挙などの）運動をする, should begin after seed-time, and end before 収穫, both the husbandman and his 主要な／長／主犯 labourers can be spared from the farm without much loss. He 信用s that the work which must be done in the 合間 can be 井戸／弁護士席 enough 遂行する／発効させるd by the old men, the women, and the children. He is not unwilling, therefore, to serve without 支払う／賃金 during a short （選挙などの）運動をする, and it frequently costs the 君主 or 連邦／共和国 as little to 持続する him in the field as to 準備する him for it. The 国民s of all the different 明言する／公表するs of 古代の Greece seem to have served in this manner till after the second Persian war; and the people of Peloponnesus till after the Peloponnesian war. The Peloponnesians, Thucydides 観察するs, 一般に left the field in the summer, and returned home to 得る the 収穫. The Roman people under their kings, and during the first ages of the 共和国, served in the same manner. It was not till the 包囲 of Veii that they who stayed at home began to 与える／捧げる something に向かって 持続するing those who went to war. In the European 君主国s, which were 設立するd upon the 廃虚s of the Roman empire, both before and for some time after the 設立 of what is 適切に called the 封建的 法律, the 広大な／多数の／重要な lords, with all their 即座の 扶養家族s, used to serve the 栄冠を与える at their own expense. In the field, in the same manner as at home, they 持続するd themselves by their own 歳入, and not by any stipend or 支払う／賃金 which they received from the king upon that particular occasion.

In a more 前進するd 明言する／公表する of society, two different 原因（となる）s 与える／捧げる to （判決などを）下す it altogether impossible that they who take the field should 持続する themselves at their own expense. Those two 原因（となる）s are, the 進歩 of 製造（する）s, and the 改良 in the art of war.

Though a husbandman should be 雇うd in an 探検隊／遠征隊, 供給するd it begins after seed-time and ends before 収穫, the interruption of his 商売／仕事 will not always occasion any かなりの diminution of his 歳入. Without the 介入 of his 労働, nature does herself the greater part of the work which remains to be done. But the moment that an artificer, a smith, a carpenter, or a weaver, for example, やめるs his workhouse, the 単独の source of his 歳入 is 完全に 乾燥した，日照りのd up. Nature does nothing for him, he does all for himself. When he takes the field, therefore, in defence of the public, as he has no 歳入 to 持続する himself, he must やむを得ず be 持続するd by the public. But in a country of which a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the inhabitants are artificers and 製造業者s, a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the people who go to war must be drawn from those classes, and must therefore be 持続するd by the public as long as they are 雇うd in its service.

When the art of war, too, has 徐々に grown up to be a very intricate and 複雑にするd science, when the event of war 中止するs to be 決定するd, as in the first ages of society, by a 選び出す／独身 不規律な 小競り合い or 戦う／戦い, but when the contest is 一般に spun out through several different （選挙などの）運動をするs, each of which lasts during the greater part of the year, it becomes universally necessary that the public should 持続する those who serve the public in war, at least while they are 雇うd in that service. Whatever in time of peace might be the ordinary 占領／職業 of those who go to war, so very tedious and expensive a service would さもなければ be far too 激しい a 重荷（を負わせる） upon them. After the second Persian war, accordingly, the armies of Athens seem to have been 一般に composed of mercenary 軍隊／機動隊s, consisting, indeed, partly of 国民s, but partly too of foreigners, and all of them 平等に 雇うd and paid at the expense of the 明言する／公表する. From the time of the 包囲 of Veii, the armies of Rome received 支払う／賃金 for their service during the time which they remained in the field. Under the 封建的 政府s the 軍の service both of the 広大な／多数の／重要な lords and of their 即座の dependants was, after a 確かな period, universally 交流d for a 支払い（額） in money, which was 雇うd to 持続する those who served in their stead.

The number of those who can go to war, in 割合 to the whole number of the people, is やむを得ず much smaller in a civilised than in a rude 明言する／公表する of society. In a civilised society, as the 兵士s are 持続するd altogether by the 労働 of those who are not 兵士s, the number of the former can never 越える what the latter can 持続する, over and above 持続するing, in a manner suitable to their 各々の 駅／配置するs, both themselves and the other officers of 政府 and 法律 whom they are 強いるd to 持続する. In the little 農地の 明言する／公表するs of 古代の Greece, a fourth or a fifth part of the whole 団体／死体 of the people considered themselves as 兵士s, and would いつかs, it is said, take a field. の中で the civilised nations of modern Europe, it is 一般的に 計算するd that not more than one-hundredth part of the inhabitants in any country can be 雇うd as 兵士s without 廃虚 to the country which 支払う／賃金s the expenses of their service.

The expense of 準備するing the army for the field seems not to have become かなりの in any nation till long after that of 持続するing it in the field had devolved 完全に upon the 君主 or 連邦／共和国. In all the different 共和国s of 古代の Greece, to learn his 軍の 演習s was a necessary part of education 課すd by the 明言する／公表する upon every 解放する／自由な 国民. In every city there seems to have been a public field, in which, under the 保護 of the public 治安判事, the young people were taught their different 演習s by different masters. In this very simple 会・原則 consisted the whole expense which any Grecian 明言する／公表する seems ever to have been at in 準備するing its 国民s for war. In 古代の Rome the 演習s of the Campus Martius answered the same 目的 with those of the 体育館 in 古代の Greece. Under the 封建的 政府s, the many public 法令／条例s that the 国民s of every 地区 should practise 弓術，射手隊 同様に as several other 軍の 演習s were ーするつもりであるd for 促進するing the same 目的, but do not seem to have 促進するd it so 井戸／弁護士席. Either from want of 利益／興味 in the officers ゆだねるd with the 死刑執行 of those 法令／条例s, or from some other 原因（となる）, they appear to have been universally neglected; and in the 進歩 of all those 政府s, 軍の 演習s seem to have gone 徐々に into disuse の中で the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people.

In the 共和国s of 古代の Greece and Rome, during the whole period of their 存在, and under the 封建的 政府s for a かなりの time after their first 設立, the 貿易（する） of a 兵士 was not a separate, 際立った 貿易（する）, which 構成するd the 単独の or 主要な／長／主犯 占領／職業 of a particular class of 国民s. Every 支配する of the 明言する／公表する, whatever might be the ordinary 貿易（する） or 占領／職業 by which he 伸び（る）d his 暮らし, considered himself, upon all ordinary occasions, as fit likewise to 演習 the 貿易（する） of a 兵士, and upon many 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の occasions as bound to 演習 it.

The art of war, however, as it is certainly the noblest of all arts, so in the 進歩 of 改良 it やむを得ず becomes one of the most 複雑にするd の中で them. The 明言する／公表する of the mechanical, 同様に as of some other arts, with which it is やむを得ず connected, 決定するs the degree of perfection to which it is 有能な of 存在 carried at any particular time. But ーするために carry it to this degree of perfection, it is necessary that it should become the 単独の or 主要な／長／主犯 占領／職業 of a particular class of 国民s, and the 分割 of 労働 is as necessary for the 改良 of this, as of every other art. Into other arts the 分割 of 労働 is 自然に introduced by the prudence of individuals, who find that they 促進する their 私的な 利益／興味 better by 限定するing themselves to a particular 貿易（する） than by 演習ing a 広大な／多数の／重要な number. But it is the 知恵 of the 明言する／公表する only which can （判決などを）下す the 貿易（する） of a 兵士 a particular 貿易（する） separate and 際立った from all others. A 私的な 国民 who, in time of 深遠な peace, and without any particular 激励 from the public, should spend the greater part of his time in 軍の 演習s, might, no 疑問, both 改善する himself very much in them, and amuse himself very 井戸／弁護士席; but he certainly would not 促進する his own 利益／興味. It is the 知恵 of the 明言する／公表する only which can （判決などを）下す it for his 利益／興味 to give up the greater part of his time to this peculiar 占領／職業: and 明言する／公表するs have not always had this 知恵, even when their circumstances had become such that the 保護 of their 存在 要求するd that they should have it.

A shepherd has a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 of leisure; a husbandman, in the rude 明言する／公表する of husbandry, has some; an artificer or 製造業者 has 非，不，無 at all. The first may, without any loss, 雇う a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 of his time in 戦争の 演習s; the second may 雇う some part of it; but the last cannot 雇う a 選び出す／独身 hour in them without some loss, and his attention to his own 利益／興味 自然に leads him to neglect them altogether. These 改良s in husbandry too, which the 進歩 of arts and 製造（する）s やむを得ず introduces, leave the husbandman as little leisure as the artificer. 軍の 演習s come to be as much neglected by the inhabitants of the country as by those of the town, and the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people becomes altogether unwarlike. That wealth, at the same time, which always follows the 改良s of 農業 and 製造（する）s, and which in reality is no more than the 蓄積するd produce of those 改良s, 刺激するs the 侵略 of all their 隣人s. An industrious, and upon that account a 豊富な nation, is of all nations the most likely to be attacked; and unless the 明言する／公表する takes some new 対策 for the public defence, the natural habits of the people （判決などを）下す them altogether incapable of defending themselves.

In these circumstances there seem to be but two methods by which the 明言する／公表する can make any tolerable 準備／条項 for the public defence.

It may either, first, by means of a very rigorous police, and in spite of the whole bent of the 利益／興味, genius, and inclinations of the people, 施行する the practice of 軍の 演習s, and 強いる either all the 国民s of the 軍の age, or a 確かな number of them, to join in some 手段 the 貿易（する） of a 兵士 to whatever other 貿易（する） or profession they may happen to carry on.

Or, secondly, by 持続するing and 雇うing a 確かな number of 国民s in the constant practice of 軍の 演習s, it may （判決などを）下す the 貿易（する） of a 兵士 a particular 貿易（する）, separate and 際立った from all others.

If the 明言する／公表する has 頼みの綱 to the first of those two expedients, its 軍の 軍隊 is said to consist in a 民兵; if to the second, it is said to consist in a standing army. The practice of 軍の 演習s is the 単独の or 主要な／長／主犯 占領／職業 of the 兵士s of a standing army, and the 維持／整備 or 支払う／賃金 which the 明言する／公表する affords them is the 主要な／長／主犯 and ordinary 基金 of their subsistence. The practice of 軍の 演習s is only the 時折の 占領／職業 of the 兵士s of a 民兵, and they derive the 主要な／長／主犯 and ordinary 基金 of their subsistence from some other 占領／職業. In a 民兵, the character of the labourer, artificer, or tradesman, predominates over that of the 兵士; in a standing army, that of the 兵士 predominates over every other character: and in this distinction seems to consist the 必須の difference between those two different 種類 of 軍の 軍隊.

民兵s have been of several different 肉親，親類d. In some countries the 国民s 運命にあるd for defending the 明言する／公表するs seem to have been 演習d only, without 存在, if I may say so, 連隊d; that is, without 存在 divided into separate and 際立った 団体／死体s of 軍隊／機動隊s, each of which 成し遂げるd its 演習s under its own proper and 永久の officers. In the 共和国s of 古代の Greece and Rome, each 国民, as long as he remained at home, seems to have practised his 演習s either 分かれて and 独立して, or with such of his equals as he liked best, and not to have been 大（公）使館員d to any particular 団体／死体 of 軍隊／機動隊s till he was 現実に called upon to take the field. In other countries, the 民兵 has not only been 演習d, but 連隊d. In England, in Switzerland, and, I believe, in every other country of modern Europe where any imperfect 軍の 軍隊 of this 肉親，親類d has been 設立するd, every 民兵 is, even in time of peace, 大（公）使館員d to a particular 団体／死体 of 軍隊／機動隊s, which 成し遂げるs its 演習s under its own proper and 永久の officers.

Before the 発明 of 小火器, that army was superior in which the 兵士s had, each 個々に, the greatest 技術 and dexterity in the use of their 武器. Strength and agility of 団体／死体 were of the highest consequence, and 一般的に 決定するd the 明言する／公表する of 戦う／戦いs. But this 技術 and dexterity in the use of their 武器 could be acquired only, in the same manner as 盗品故買者ing is at 現在の, by practising, not in 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体s, but each man 分かれて, in a particular school, under a particular master, or with his own particular equals and companions. Since the 発明 of 小火器, strength and agility of 団体／死体, or even 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の dexterity and 技術 in the use of 武器, though they are far from 存在 of no consequence, are, however, of いっそう少なく consequence. The nature of the 武器, though it by no means puts the ぎこちない upon a level with the skilful, puts him more nearly so than he ever was before. All the dexterity and 技術, it is supposed, which are necessary for using it, can be 井戸／弁護士席 enough acquired by practising in 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体s.

Regularity, order, and 誘発する obedience to 命令（する） are 質s which, in modern armies, are of more importance に向かって 決定するing the 運命／宿命 of 戦う／戦いs than the dexterity and 技術 of the 兵士s in the use of their 武器. But the noise of 小火器, the smoke, and the invisible death to which every man feels himself every moment exposed as soon as he comes within 大砲-発射, and frequently a long time before the 戦う／戦い can be 井戸／弁護士席 said to be engaged, must （判決などを）下す it very difficult to 持続する any かなりの degree of this regularity, order, and 誘発する obedience, even in the beginning of a modern 戦う／戦い. In an 古代の 戦う／戦い there was no noise but what arose from the human 発言する／表明する; there was no smoke, there was no invisible 原因（となる） of 負傷させるs or death. Every man, till some mortal 武器 現実に did approach him, saw 明確に that no such 武器 was 近づく him. In these circumstances, and の中で 軍隊／機動隊s who had some 信用／信任 in their own 技術 and dexterity in the use of their 武器, it must have been a good 取引，協定 いっそう少なく difficult to 保存する some degree regularity and order, not only in the beginning, but through the whole 進歩 of an 古代の 戦う／戦い, and till one of the two armies was 公正に／かなり 敗北・負かすd. But the habits of regularity, order, and 誘発する obedience to 命令（する） can be acquired only by 軍隊／機動隊s which are 演習d in 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体s.

A 民兵, however, in whatever manner it may be either disciplined or 演習d, must always be much inferior to a 井戸／弁護士席-disciplined and 井戸／弁護士席-演習d standing army.

The 兵士s who are 演習d only once a week, or once a month, can never be so 専門家 in the use of their 武器 as those who are 演習d every day, or every other day; and though this circumstance may not be of so much consequence in modern as it was in 古代の times, yet the 定評のある 優越 of the Prussian 軍隊／機動隊s, 借りがあるing, it is said, very much to their superior expertness in their 演習, may 満足させる us that it is, even at this day, of very かなりの consequence.

The 兵士s who are bound to obey their officer only once a week or once a month, and who are at all other times at liberty to manage their own 事件／事情／状勢s their own way, without 存在 in any 尊敬（する）・点 accountable to him, can never be under the same awe in his presence, can never have the same disposition to ready obedience, with those whose whole life and 行為／行う are every day directed by him, and who every day even rise and go to bed, or at least retire to their ４半期/4分の1s, によれば his orders. In what is called discipline, or in the habit of ready obedience, a 民兵 must always be still more inferior to a standing army than it may いつかs be in what is called the 手動式の 演習, or in the 管理／経営 and use of its 武器. But in modern war the habit of ready and instant obedience is of much greater consequence than a かなりの 優越 in the 管理／経営 of 武器.

Those 民兵s which, like the Tartar or Arab 民兵, go to war under the same chieftains whom they are accustomed to obey in peace are by far the best. In 尊敬（する）・点 for their officers, in the habit of ready obedience, they approach nearest to standing armies. The highland 民兵, when it served under its own chieftains, had some advantage of the same 肉親，親類d. As the highlanders, however, were not wandering, but 静止している shepherds, as they had all a 直す／買収する，八百長をするd habitation, and were not, in peaceable times, accustomed to follow their chieftain from place to place, so in time of war they were いっそう少なく willing to follow him to any かなりの distance, or to continue for any long time in the field. When they had acquired any booty they were eager to return home, and his 当局 was seldom 十分な to 拘留する them. In point of obedience they were always much inferior to what is 報告（する）／憶測d of the Tartars and Arabs. As the highlanders too, from their 静止している life, spend いっそう少なく of their time in the open 空気／公表する, they were always いっそう少なく accustomed to 軍の 演習s, and were いっそう少なく 専門家 in the use of their 武器 than the Tartars and Arabs are said to be.

A 民兵 of any 肉親，親類d, it must be 観察するd, however, which has served for several 連続する （選挙などの）運動をするs in the field, becomes in every 尊敬（する）・点 a standing army. The 兵士s are every day 演習d in the use of their 武器, and, 存在 絶えず under the 命令（する） of their officers, are habituated to the same 誘発する obedience which takes place in standing armies. What they were before they took the field is of little importance. They やむを得ず become in every 尊敬（する）・点 a standing army after they have passed a few （選挙などの）運動をするs in it. Should the war in America drag out through another （選挙などの）運動をする, the American 民兵 may become in every 尊敬（する）・点 a match for that standing army of which the valour appeared, in the last war, at least not inferior to that of the hardiest 退役軍人s of フラン and Spain.

This distinction 存在 井戸／弁護士席 understood, the history of all ages, it will be 設立する, 耐えるs 証言 to the irresistible 優越 which a 井戸／弁護士席-規制するd standing army has over a 民兵.

One of the first standing armies of which we have any 際立った account, in any 井戸／弁護士席 authenticated history, is that of Philip of Macedon. His たびたび（訪れる） wars with the Thracians, Illyrians, Thessalians, and some of the Greek cities in the neighbourhood of Macedon, 徐々に formed his 軍隊／機動隊s, which in the beginning were probably 民兵, to the exact discipline of a standing army. When he was at peace, which he was very seldom, and never for any long time together, he was careful not to 解散する that army. It vanquished and subdued, after a long and violent struggle, indeed, the gallant and 井戸／弁護士席 演習d 民兵s of the 主要な／長／主犯 共和国s of 古代の Greece, and afterwards, with very little struggle, the effeminate and ill-演習d 民兵 of the 広大な／多数の／重要な Persian empire. The 落ちる of the Greek 共和国s and of the Persian empire was the 影響 of the irresistible 優越 which a standing army has over every sort of 民兵. It is the first 広大な／多数の／重要な 革命 in the 事件／事情／状勢s of mankind of which history has 保存するd any 際立った or circumstantial account.

The 落ちる of Carthage, and the consequent elevation of Rome, is the second. All the varieties in the fortune of those two famous 共和国s may very 井戸／弁護士席 be accounted for from the same 原因（となる）.

From the end of the first to the beginning of the second Carthaginian war the armies of Carthage were continually in the field, and 雇うd under three 広大な／多数の／重要な generals, who 後継するd one another in the 命令（する）: Hamilcar, his son-in-法律 Hasdrubal, and his son Hannibal; first in chastising their own 反抗的な slaves, afterwards in subduing the 反乱d nations of Africa, and, lastly, in 征服する／打ち勝つing the 広大な／多数の／重要な kingdom of Spain. The army which Hannibal led from Spain into Italy must やむを得ず, in those different wars, have been 徐々に formed to the exact discipline of a standing army. The Romans, in the 合間, though they had not been altogether at peace, yet they had not, during this period, been engaged in any war of very 広大な／多数の／重要な consequence, and their 軍の discipline, it is 一般に said, was a good 取引，協定 relaxed. The Roman armies which Hannibal 遭遇（する）d at Trebia, Thrasymenus, and Cannae were 民兵 …に反対するd to a standing army. This circumstance, it is probable, 与える／捧げるd more than any other to 決定する the 運命／宿命 of those 戦う／戦いs.

The standing army which Hannibal left behind him in Spain had the like 優越 over the 民兵 which the Romans sent to …に反対する it, and in a few years, under the 命令（する） of his brother, the younger Hasdrubal, expelled them almost 完全に from that country.

Hannibal was ill 供給（する）d from home. The Roman 民兵, 存在 continually in the field, became in the 進歩 of the war a 井戸／弁護士席 disciplined and 井戸／弁護士席-演習d standing army, and the 優越 of Hannibal grew every day いっそう少なく and いっそう少なく. Hasdrubal 裁判官d it necessary to lead the whole, or almost the whole of the standing army which he 命令（する）d in Spain, to the 援助 of his brother in Italy. In this march he is said to have been misled by his guides, and in a country which he did not know, was surprised and attacked by another standing army, in every 尊敬（する）・点 equal or superior to his own, and was 完全に 敗北・負かすd.

When Hasdrubal had left Spain, the 広大な／多数の／重要な Scipio 設立する nothing to …に反対する him but a 民兵 inferior to his own. He 征服する／打ち勝つd and subdued that 民兵, and, in the course of the war, his own 民兵 やむを得ず became a 井戸／弁護士席-disciplined and 井戸／弁護士席-演習d standing army. That standing army was afterwards carried to Africa, where it 設立する nothing but a 民兵 to …に反対する it. ーするために defend Carthage it became necessary to 解任する the standing army of Hannibal. The disheartened and frequently 敗北・負かすd African 民兵 joined it, and, at the 戦う／戦い of Zama, composed the greater part of the 軍隊／機動隊s of Hannibal. The event of that day 決定するd the 運命／宿命 of the two 競争相手 共和国s.

From the end of the second Carthaginian war till the 落ちる of the Roman 共和国, the armies of Rome were in every 尊敬（する）・点 standing armies. The standing army of Macedon made some 抵抗 to their 武器. In the 高さ of their grandeur it cost them two 広大な／多数の／重要な wars, and three 広大な／多数の／重要な 戦う／戦いs, to subdue that little kingdom, of which the conquest would probably have been still more difficult had it not been for the cowardice of its last king. The 民兵s of all the civilised nations of the 古代の world, of Greece, of Syria, and of Egypt, made but a feeble 抵抗 to the standing armies of Rome. The 民兵s of some barbarous nations defended themselves much better. The Scythian or Tartar 民兵, which Mithridates drew from the countries north of the Euxine and Caspian seas, were the most formidable enemies whom the Romans had to 遭遇（する） after the second Carthaginian war. The Parthian and German 民兵s, too, were always respectable, and upon several occasions 伸び（る）d very かなりの advantages over the Roman armies. In general, however, and when the Roman armies were 井戸／弁護士席 命令（する）d, they appear to have been very much superior; and if the Romans did not 追求する the final conquest either of Parthia or Germany, it was probably because they 裁判官d that it was not 価値（がある） while to 追加する those two barbarous countries to an empire which was already too large. The 古代の Parthians appear to have been a nation of Scythian or Tartar extraction, and to have always 保持するd a good 取引，協定 of the manners of their ancestors. The 古代の Germans were, like the Scythians or Tartars, a nation of wandering shepherds, who went to war under the same 長，指導者s whom they were accustomed to follow in peace. Their 民兵 was 正確に／まさに of the same 肉親，親類d with that of the Scythians or Tartars, from whom, too, they were probably descended.

Many different 原因（となる）s 与える／捧げるd to relax the discipline of the Roman armies. Its extreme severity was, perhaps, one of those 原因（となる）s. In the days of their grandeur, when no enemy appeared 有能な of …に反対するing them, their 激しい armour was laid aside as unnecessarily burdensome, their labourious 演習s were neglected as unnecessarily toilsome. Under the Roman emperors, besides, the standing armies of Rome, those 特に which guarded the German and Pannonian frontiers, became dangerous to their masters, against whom they used frequently to 始める，決める up their own generals. ーするために （判決などを）下す them いっそう少なく formidable, によれば some authors, Dioclesian, によれば others, Constantine, first withdrew them from the frontier, where they had always before been 野営するd in 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体s, 一般に of two or three legions each, and 分散させるd them in small 団体／死体s through the different 地方の towns, from whence they were 不十分な ever 除去するd but when it became necessary to repel an 侵略. Small 団体／死体s of 兵士s ４半期/4分の1d, in 貿易（する）ing and 製造業の towns, and seldom 除去するd from those ４半期/4分の1s, became themselves tradesmen, artificers, and 製造業者s. The civil （機の）カム to predominate over the 軍の character, and the standing armies of Rome 徐々に degenerated into a corrupt, neglected, and undisciplined 民兵, incapable of resisting the attack of the German and Scythian 民兵s, which soon afterwards 侵略するd the western empire. It was only by 雇うing the 民兵 of some of those nations to …に反対する to that of others that the emperors were for some time able to defend themselves. The 落ちる of the western empire is the third 広大な／多数の／重要な 革命 in the 事件／事情／状勢s of mankind of which 古代の history has 保存するd any 際立った or circumstantial account. It was brought about by the irresistible 優越 which the 民兵 of a barbarous has over that of a civilised nation; which the 民兵 of a nation of shepherds has over that of a nation of husbandmen, artificers, and 製造業者s. The victories which have been ga ined by 民兵s have 一般に been, not over standing armies, but over other 民兵s in 演習 and discipline inferior to themselves. Such were the victories which the Greek 民兵 伸び（る）d over that of the Persian empire; and such too were those which in later times the スイスの 民兵 伸び（る）d over that of the Austrians and Burgundians.

The 軍の 軍隊 of the German and Scythian nations who 設立するd themselves upon the 廃虚s of the western empire continued for some time to be of the same 肉親，親類d in their new 解決／入植地s as it had been in their 初めの country. It was a 民兵 of shepherds and husbandmen, which, in time of war, took the field under the 命令（する） of the same chieftains whom it was accustomed to obey in peace. It was, therefore, tolerably 井戸／弁護士席 演習d, and tolerably 井戸／弁護士席 disciplined. As arts and 産業 前進するd, however, the 当局 of the chieftains 徐々に decayed, and the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people had いっそう少なく time to spare for 軍の 演習s. Both the discipline and the 演習 of the 封建的 民兵, therefore, went 徐々に to 廃虚, and standing armies were 徐々に introduced to 供給（する） the place of it. When the expedient of a standing army, besides, had once been 可決する・採択するd by one civilised nation, it became necessary that all its 隣人s should follow their example. They soon 設立する that their safety depended upon their doing so, and that their own 民兵 was altogether incapable of resisting the attack of such an army.

The 兵士s of a standing army, though they may never have seen an enemy, yet have frequently appeared to 所有する all the courage of 退役軍人 軍隊／機動隊s and the very moment that they took the field to have been fit to 直面する the hardiest and most experienced 退役軍人s. In 1756, when the ロシアの army marched into Poland, the valour of the ロシアの 兵士s did not appear inferior to that of the Prussians, at that time supposed to be the hardiest and most experienced 退役軍人s in Europe. The ロシアの empire, however, had enjoyed a 深遠な peace for 近づく twenty years before, and could at that time have very few 兵士s who had ever seen an enemy. When the Spanish war broke out in 1739, England had enjoyed a 深遠な peace for about eight-and-twenty years. The valour of her 兵士s, however, far from 存在 corrupted by that long peace, was never more distinguished than in the 試みる／企てる upon Carthagena, the first unfortunate 偉業／利用する of that unfortunate war. In a long peace the generals, perhaps, may いつかs forget their 技術; but, where a 井戸／弁護士席-規制するd standing army has been kept up, the 兵士s seem never to forget their valour.

When a civilised nation depends for its defence upon a 民兵, it is at all times exposed to be 征服する／打ち勝つd by any barbarous nation which happens to be in its neighbourhood. The たびたび（訪れる） conquests of all the civilised countries in Asia by the Tartars 十分に 論証するs the natural 優越 which the 民兵 of a barbarous has over that of a civilised nation. A 井戸／弁護士席-規制するd standing army is superior to every 民兵. Such an army, as it can best be 持続するd by an opulent and civilised nation, so it can alone defend such a nation against the 侵略 of a poor and barbarous 隣人. It is only by means of a standing army, therefore, that the civilization of any country can be perpetuated, or even 保存するd for any かなりの time.

As it is only by means of a 井戸／弁護士席-規制するd standing army that a civilised country can be defended, so it is only by means of it that a barbarous country can be suddenly and tolerably civilised. A standing army 設立するs, with an irresistible 軍隊, the 法律 of the 君主 through the remotest 州s of the empire, and 持続するs some degree of 正規の／正選手 政府 in countries which could not さもなければ 収容する／認める of any. Whoever 診察するs, with attention, the 改良s which Peter the 広大な／多数の／重要な introduced into the ロシアの empire, will find that they almost all 解決する themselves into the 設立 of a 井戸／弁護士席 規制するd standing army. It is the 器具 which 遂行する／発効させるs and 持続するs all his other 規則s. That degree of order and 内部の peace which that empire has ever since enjoyed is altogether 借りがあるing to the 影響（力） of that army.

Men of 共和国の／共和党の 原則s have been jealous of a standing army as dangerous to liberty. It certainly is so wherever the 利益／興味 of the general and that of the 主要な／長／主犯 officers are not やむを得ず connected with the support of the 憲法 of the 明言する／公表する. The standing army of Caesar destroyed the Roman 共和国. The standing army of Cromwell turned the Long 議会 out of doors. But where the 君主 is himself the general, and the 主要な／長／主犯 nobility and gentry of the country the 長，指導者 officers of the army, where the 軍の 軍隊 is placed under the 命令（する） of those who have the greatest 利益／興味 in the support of the civil 当局, because they have themselves the greatest 株 of that 当局, a standing army can never be dangerous to liberty. On the contrary, it may in some 事例／患者s be favourable to liberty. The 安全 which it gives to the 君主 （判決などを）下すs unnecessary that troublesome jealousy, which, in some modern 共和国s, seems to watch over the minutest 活動／戦闘s, and to be at all times ready to 乱す the peace of every 国民. Where the 安全 of the 治安判事, though supported by the 主要な／長／主犯 people of the country, is 危うくするd by every popular discontent; where a small tumult is 有能な of bringing about in a few hours a 広大な／多数の／重要な 革命, the whole 当局 of 政府 must be 雇うd to 抑える and punish every murmur and （民事の）告訴 against it. To a 君主, on the contrary, who feels himself supported, not only by the natural aristocracy of the country, but by a 井戸／弁護士席-規制するd standing army, the rudest, the most groundless, and the most licentious remonstrances can give little 騒動. He can 安全に 容赦 or neglect them, and his consciousness of his own 優越 自然に 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせるs him to do so. That degree of liberty which approaches to licentiousness can be 許容するd only in countries where the 君主 is 安全な・保証するd by a 井戸／弁護士席-規制するd standing army. It is in such countries only that the public safety does not 要求する that the 君主 should be 信用d wit h any discretionary 力／強力にする for 抑えるing even the impertinent wantonness of this licentious liberty.

The first 義務 of the 君主, therefore, that of defending the society from the 暴力／激しさ and 不正 of other 独立した・無所属 societies, grows 徐々に more and more expensive as the society 前進するs in civilization. The 軍の 軍隊 of the society, which 初めは cost the 君主 no expense either in time of peace or in time of war, must, in the 進歩 of 改良, first be 持続するd by him in time of war, and afterwards even in time of peace.

The 広大な／多数の／重要な change introduced into the art of war by the 発明 of 小火器 has 高めるd still その上の both the expense of 演習ing and disciplining any particular number of 兵士s in time of peace, and that of 雇うing them in time of war. Both their 武器 and their 弾薬／武器 are become more expensive. A musket is a more expensive machine than a javelin or a 屈服する and arrows; a 大砲 or a 迫撃砲 than a balista or a catapulta. The 砕く which is spent in a modern review is lost irrecoverably, and occasions a very かなりの expense. The javeline and arrows which were thrown or 発射 in an 古代の one could easily be 選ぶd up again, and were besides of very little value. The 大砲 and the 迫撃砲 are not only much dearer, but much heavier machines than the balista or catapulta, and 要求する a greater expense, not only to 準備する them for the field, but to carry them to it. As the 優越 of the modern 大砲 too over that of the 古代のs is very 広大な／多数の／重要な, it has become much more difficult, and その結果 much more expensive, to 防備を堅める／強化する a town so as to resist even for a few weeks the attack of that superior 大砲. In modern times many different 原因（となる）s 与える／捧げる to （判決などを）下す the defence of the society more expensive. The 避けられない 影響s of the natural 進歩 of 改良 have, in this 尊敬（する）・点, been a good 取引，協定 高めるd by a 広大な／多数の／重要な 革命 in the art of war, to which a mere 事故, the 発明 of gunpowder, seems to have given occasion.

In modern war the 広大な／多数の／重要な expense of 小火器 gives an evident advantage to the nation which can best afford that expense, and その結果 to an opulent and civilised over a poor and barbarous nation. In 古代の times the opulent and civilised 設立する it difficult to defend themselves against the poor and barbarous nations. In modern times the poor and barbarous find it difficult to defend themselves against the opulent and civilised. The 発明 of 小火器, an 発明 which at first sight appears to be so pernicious, is certainly favourable both to the permanency and to the 拡張 of civilization.

Part 2: Of the Expense of 司法（官）

の中で nations of hunters, as there is 不十分な any 所有物／資産／財産, or at least 非，不，無 that 越えるs the value of two or three days' 労働, so there is seldom any 設立するd 治安判事 or any 正規の／正選手 行政 of 司法（官）. Men who have no 所有物／資産／財産 can 負傷させる one another only in their persons or 評判s. But when one man kills, 負傷させるs, （警官の）巡回区域，受持ち区域s, or defames another, though he to whom the 傷害 is done 苦しむs, he who does it receives no 利益. It is さもなければ with the 傷害s to 所有物／資産／財産. The 利益 of the person who does the 傷害 is often equal to the loss of him who 苦しむs it. Envy, malice, or 憤慨 are the only passions which can 誘発する one man to 負傷させる another in his person or 評判. But the greater part of men are not very frequently under the 影響（力） of those passions, and the very worst of men are so only occasionally. As their gratification too, how agreeable soever it may be to 確かな characters, is not …に出席するd with any real or 永久の advantage, it is in the greater part of men 一般的に 抑制するd by prudential considerations. Men may live together in society with some tolerable degree of 安全, though there is no civil 治安判事 to 保護する them from the 不正 of those passions. But avarice and ambition in the rich, in the poor the 憎悪 of 労働 and the love of 現在の 緩和する and enjoyment, are the passions which 誘発する to 侵略する 所有物／資産／財産, passions much more 安定した in their 操作／手術, and much more 全世界の／万国共通の in their 影響（力）. Wherever there is 広大な／多数の／重要な 所有物／資産／財産 there is 広大な／多数の／重要な 不平等. For one very rich man there must be at least five hundred poor, and the affluence of the few supposes the indigence of the many. The affluence of the rich excites the indignation of the poor, who are often both driven by want, and 誘発するd by envy, to 侵略する his 所有／入手s. It is only under the 避難所 of the civil 治安判事 that the owner of that 価値のある 所有物／資産／財産, which is acquired by the 労働 of many years, or perhaps of many 連続する 世代s, can sleep a 選び出す／独身 night in 安全. He is at all times surrounded by unknown enemies, whom, though he never 刺激するd, he can never appease, and from whose 不正 he can be 保護するd only by the powerful arm of the civil 治安判事 continually held up to chastise it. The 取得／買収 of 価値のある and 広範囲にわたる 所有物／資産／財産, therefore, やむを得ず 要求するs the 設立 of civil 政府. Where there is no 所有物／資産／財産, or at least 非，不，無 that 越えるs the value of two or three days' 労働, civil 政府 is not so necessary.

Civil 政府 supposes a 確かな subordination. But as the necessity of civil 政府 徐々に grows up with the 取得／買収 of 価値のある 所有物／資産／財産, so the 主要な／長／主犯 原因（となる）s which 自然に introduce subordination 徐々に grow up with the growth of that 価値のある 所有物／資産／財産.

The 原因（となる）s or circumstances which 自然に introduce subordination, or which 自然に, and antecedent to any civil 会・原則, give some men some 優越 over the greater part of their brethren, seem to be four in number.

The first of those 原因（となる）s or circumstances is the 優越 of personal 資格s, of strength, beauty, and agility of 団体／死体; of 知恵 and virtue, of prudence, 司法（官）, fortitude, and moderation of mind. The 資格s of the 団体／死体, unless supported by those of the mind, can give little 当局 in any period of society. He is a very strong man, who, by mere strength of 団体／死体, can 軍隊 two weak ones to obey him. The 資格s of the mind can alone give a very 広大な／多数の／重要な 当局. They are, however, invisible 質s; always disputable, and 一般に 論争d. No society, whether barbarous or civilised, has ever 設立する it convenient to settle the 支配するs of precedency of 階級 and subordination によれば those invisible 質s; but によれば something that is more plain and palpable.

The second of those 原因（となる）s or circumstances is the 優越 of age. An old man, 供給するd his age is not so far 前進するd as to give 疑惑 of dotage, is everywhere more 尊敬（する）・点d than a young man of equal 階級, fortune, and abilities. の中で nations of hunters, such as the native tribes of North America, age is the 単独の 創立／基礎 of 階級 and precedency. の中で them, father is the 呼称 of a superior; brother, of an equal; and son, of an inferior. In the most opulent and civilised nations, age 規制するs 階級 の中で those who are in every other 尊敬（する）・点 equal, and の中で whom, therefore, there is nothing else to 規制する it. の中で brothers and の中で sisters, the eldest always takes place; and in the succession of the paternal 広い地所 everything which cannot be divided, but must go entire to one person, such as a 肩書を与える of honour, is in most 事例／患者s given to the eldest. Age is a plain and palpable 質 which 収容する／認めるs of no 論争.

The third of those 原因（となる）s or circumstances is the 優越 of fortune. The 当局 of riches, however, though 広大な／多数の／重要な in every age of society, is perhaps greatest in the rudest age of society which 収容する／認めるs of any かなりの 不平等 of fortune. A Tartar 長，指導者, the 増加する of whose herds and 在庫／株s is 十分な to 持続する a thousand men, cannot 井戸／弁護士席 雇う that 増加する in any other way than in 持続するing a thousand men. The rude 明言する／公表する of his society does not afford him any 製造（する）d produce, any trinkets or baubles of any 肉親，親類d, for which he can 交流 that part of his rude produce which is over and above his own 消費. The thousand men whom he thus 持続するs, depending 完全に upon him for their subsistence, must both obey his orders in war, and 服従させる／提出する to his 裁判権 in peace. He is やむを得ず both their general and their 裁判官, and his chieftainship is the necessary 影響 of the 優越 of his fortune. In an opulent and civilised society, a man may 所有する a much greater fortune and yet not be able to 命令（する） a dozen people. Though the produce of his 広い地所 may be 十分な to 持続する, and may perhaps 現実に 持続する, more than a thousand people, yet as those people 支払う／賃金 for everything which they get from him, as he gives 不十分な anything to anybody but in 交流 for an 同等（の）, there is 不十分な anybody who considers himself as 完全に 扶養家族 upon him, and his 当局 延長するs only over a few menial servants. The 当局 of fortune, however, is very 広大な／多数の／重要な even in an opulent and civilised society. That it is much greater than that either of age or of personal 質s has been the constant （民事の）告訴 of every period of society which 認める of any かなりの 不平等 of fortune. The first period of society, that of hunters, 収容する／認めるs of no such 不平等. 全世界の／万国共通の poverty 設立するs their 全世界の／万国共通の equality, and the 優越 either of age or of personal 質s are the feeble but the 単独の 創立／基礎s of 当局 and subordination. There is therefore little or no 当局 or subordination in this period of society. The second period of society, that of shepherds, 収容する／認めるs of very 広大な／多数の／重要な 不平等s of fortune, and there is no period in which the 優越 of fortune gives so 広大な／多数の／重要な 当局 to those who 所有する it. There is no period accordingly in which 当局 and subordination are more perfectly 設立するd. The 当局 of an Arabian sherif is very 広大な／多数の／重要な; that of a Tartar 旅宿泊所 altogether despotical.

The fourth of those 原因（となる）s or circumstances is the 優越 of birth. 優越 of birth supposes an 古代の 優越 of fortune in the family of the person who （人命などを）奪う，主張するs it. All families are 平等に 古代の; and the ancestors of the prince, though they may be better known, cannot 井戸／弁護士席 be more 非常に／多数の than those of the beggar. Antiquity of family means everywhere the antiquity either of wealth, or of that greatness which is 一般的に either 設立するd upon wealth, or …を伴ってd with it. Upstart greatness is everywhere いっそう少なく 尊敬（する）・点d than 古代の greatness. The 憎悪 of usurpers, the love of the family of an 古代の 君主, are, in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段, 設立するd upon the contempt which men 自然に have for the former, and upon their veneration for the latter. As a 軍の officer 服従させる／提出するs without 不本意 to the 当局 of a superior by whom he has always been 命令（する）d, but cannot 耐える that his inferior should be 始める，決める over his 長，率いる, so men easily 服従させる／提出する to a family to whom they and their ancestors have always submitted; but are 解雇する／砲火／射撃d with indignation when another family, in whom they had never 定評のある any such 優越, assumes a dominion over them.

The distinction of birth, 存在 その後の to the 不平等 of fortune, can have no place in nations of hunters, の中で whom all men, 存在 equal in fortune, must likewise be very nearly equal in birth. The son of a wise and 勇敢に立ち向かう man may, indeed, even の中で them, be somewhat more 尊敬（する）・点d than a man of equal 長所 who has the misfortune to be the son of a fool or a coward. The difference, however, will not be very 広大な／多数の／重要な; and there never was, I believe, a 広大な／多数の／重要な family in the world whose illustration was 完全に derived from the 相続物件 of 知恵 and virtue.

The distinction of birth not only may, but always does take place の中で nations of shepherds. Such nations are always strangers to every sort of 高級な, and 広大な／多数の／重要な wealth can 不十分な ever be dissipated の中で them by improvident profusion. There are no nations accordingly who abound more in families 深い尊敬の念を抱くd and honoured on account of their 降下／家系 from a long race of 広大な／多数の／重要な and illustrious ancestors, because there are no nations の中で whom wealth is likely to continue longer in the same families.

Birth and fortune are evidently the two circumstances which principally 始める，決める one man above another. They are the two 広大な／多数の／重要な sources of personal distinction, and are therefore the 主要な／長／主犯 原因（となる）s which 自然に 設立する 当局 and subordination の中で men. の中で nations of shepherds both those 原因（となる）s operate with their 十分な 軍隊. The 広大な／多数の／重要な shepherd or herdsman, 尊敬（する）・点d on account of his 広大な／多数の／重要な wealth, and of the 広大な／多数の／重要な number of those who depend upon him for subsistence, and 深い尊敬の念を抱くd on account of the nobleness of his birth, and of the immemorial antiquity of his illustrious family, has a natural 当局 over all the inferior shepherds or herdsmen of his horde or 一族／派閥. He can 命令（する） the 部隊d 軍隊 of a greater number of people than any of them. His 軍の 力／強力にする is greater than that of any of them. In time of war they are all of them 自然に 性質の／したい気がして to 召集（する） themselves under his 旗，新聞一面トップの大見出し／大々的に報道する, rather than under that of any other person, and his birth and fortune thus 自然に procure to him some sort of (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする. By 命令（する）ing, too, the 部隊d 軍隊 of a greater number of people than any of them, he is best able to 強要する any one of them who may have 負傷させるd another to 補償する the wrong. He is the person, therefore, to whom all those who are too weak to defend themselves 自然に look up for 保護. It is to him that they 自然に complain of the 傷害s which they imagine have been done to them, and his interposition in such 事例／患者s is more easily submitted to, even by the person complained of, than that of any other person would be. The judicial 当局 of such a 君主, however, far from 存在 a 原因（となる） of expense, was for a long time a source of 歳入 to him. The persons who 適用するd to him for 司法（官） were always willing to 支払う／賃金 for it, and a 現在の never failed to …を伴って a 嘆願（書）. After the 当局 of the 君主, too, was 完全に 設立するd, the person 設立する 有罪の, over and above the satisfaction which he was 強いるd to make to the party, was likewise 軍隊d to 支払う／賃金 an amercement to the 君主. He had given trouble, he had 乱すd, he had broke the peace of his lord the king, and for those offences an amercement was thought 予定. In the Tartar 政府s of Asia, in the 政府s of Europe which were 設立するd by the German and Scythian nations who overturned the Roman empire, the 行政 of 司法（官） was a かなりの source of 歳入, both to the 君主 and to all the lesser 長，指導者s or lords who 演習d under him any particular 裁判権, either over some particular tribe or 一族／派閥, or over some particular 領土 or 地区. 初めは both the 君主 and the inferior 長，指導者s used to 演習 this 裁判権 in their own persons. Afterwards they universally 設立する it convenient to 委任する／代表 it to some 代用品，人, （強制）執行官, or 裁判官. This 代用品，人, however, was still 強いるd to account to his 主要な／長／主犯 or 選挙権を持つ／選挙人 for the 利益（をあげる）s of the 裁判権. Whoever reads the 指示／教授／教育s which were given to the 裁判官s of the 回路・連盟 in the time of Henry II will see 明確に that those 裁判官s were a sort of itinerant factors, sent 一連の会議、交渉／完成する the country for the 目的 of 徴収するing 確かな 支店s of the king's 歳入. In those days the 行政 of 司法（官） not only afforded a 確かな 歳入 to the 君主, but to procure this 歳入 seems to have been one of the 主要な／長／主犯 advantages which he 提案するd to 得る by the 行政 of 司法（官）.

This 計画／陰謀 of making the 行政 of 司法（官） subservient to the 目的s of 歳入 could 不十分な fail to be 生産力のある of several very 甚だしい／１２ダース 乱用s. The person who 適用するd for 司法（官） with a large 現在の in his 手渡す was likely to get something more than 司法（官）; while he who 適用するd for it with a small one was likely to get something いっそう少なく. 司法（官）, too, might frequently be 延期するd in order that this 現在の might be repeated. The amercement, besides, of the person complained of, might frequently 示唆する a very strong 推論する／理由 for finding him in the wrong, even when he had not really been so. That such 乱用s were far from 存在 uncommon the 古代の history of every country in Europe 耐えるs 証言，証人／目撃する.

When the 君主 or 長，指導者 演習d his judicial 当局 in his own person, how much soever he might 乱用 it, it must have been 不十分な possible to get any 是正する, because there could seldom be anybody powerful enough to call him to account. When he 演習d it by a （強制）執行官, indeed, 是正する might いつかs be had. If it was for his own 利益 only that the （強制）執行官 had been 有罪の of any 行為／法令／行動する of 不正, the 君主 himself might not always be unwilling to punish him, or to 強いる him to 修理 the wrong. But if it was for the 利益 of his 君主, if it was ーするために make 法廷，裁判所 to the person who 任命するd him and who might prefer him, that he had committed any 行為／法令／行動する of 圧迫, 是正する would upon most occasions be as impossible as if the 君主 had committed it himself. In all barbarous 政府s, accordingly, in all those 古代の 政府s of Europe in particular which were 設立するd upon the 廃虚s of the Roman empire, the 行政 of 司法（官） appears for a long time to have been 極端に corrupt, far from 存在 やめる equal and impartial even under the best 君主s, and altogether profligate under the worst.

の中で nations of shepherds, where the 君主 or 長，指導者 is only the greatest shepherd or herdsman of the horde or 一族／派閥, he is 持続するd in the same manner as any of his vassals or 支配するs, by the 増加する of his own herds or flocks. の中で those nations of husbandmen who are but just come out of the shepherd 明言する／公表する, and who are not much 前進するd beyond that 明言する／公表する, such as the Greek tribes appear to have been about the time of the Trojan war, and our German and Scythian ancestors when they first settled upon the 廃虚s of the western empire, the 君主 or 長，指導者 is, in the same manner, only the greatest landlord of the country, and is 持続するd, in the same manner as any other landlord, by a 歳入 derived from his own 私的な 広い地所, or from what, in modern Europe, was called the demesne of the 栄冠を与える. His 支配するs, upon ordinary occasions, 与える／捧げるd nothing to his support, except when, ーするために 保護する them from the 圧迫 of some of their fellow-支配するs, they stand in need of his 当局. The 現在のs which they make him upon such occasions 構成する the whole ordinary 歳入, the whole of the emoluments which, except perhaps upon some very 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 緊急s, he derives from his dominion over them. When Agamemnon, in ホームラン, 申し込む／申し出s to Achilles for his friendship the 主権，独立 of seven Greek cities, the 単独の advantage which he について言及するs as likely to be derived from it was that the people would honour him with 現在のs. As long as such 現在のs, as long as the emoluments of 司法（官）, or what may be called the 料金s of 法廷，裁判所, 構成するd in this manner the whole ordinary 歳入 which the 君主 derived from his 主権，独立, it could not 井戸／弁護士席 be 推定する／予想するd, it could not even decently be 提案するd, that he should give them up altogether. It might, and it frequently was 提案するd, that he should 規制する and ascertain them. But after they had been so 規制するd and ascertained, how to 妨げる a person who was all-powerful from 延長するing them beyond those 規則s was still very difficult, not to say impossible. During the continuance of this 明言する／公表する of things, therefore, the 汚職 of 司法（官）, 自然に resulting from the 独断的な and uncertain nature of those 現在のs, 不十分な 認める of any effectual 治療（薬）.

But when from different 原因（となる）s, 主として from the continually 増加するing expenses of defending the nation against the 侵略 of other nations, the 私的な 広い地所 of the 君主 had become altogether insufficient for defraying the expense of the 主権，独立, and when it had become necessary that the people should, for their own 安全, 与える／捧げる に向かって this expense by 税金s of different 肉親，親類d, it seems to have been very 一般的に 規定するd that no 現在の for the 行政 of 司法（官） should, under any pretence, be 受託するd either by the 君主, or by his （強制）執行官s and 代用品，人s, the 裁判官s. Those 現在のs, it seems to have been supposed, could more easily be 廃止するd altogether than effectually 規制するd and ascertained. 直す／買収する，八百長をするd salaries were 任命するd to the 裁判官s, which were supposed to 補償する to them the loss of whatever might have been their 株 of the 古代の emoluments of 司法（官）, as the 税金s more than 補償するd to the 君主 the loss of his. 司法（官） was then said to be 治めるd gratis.

司法（官）, however, never was in reality 治めるd gratis in any country. Lawyers and 弁護士／代理人／検事s, at least, must always be paid by the parties; and, if they were not, they would 成し遂げる their 義務 still worse than they 現実に 成し遂げる it. The 料金s 毎年 paid to lawyers and 弁護士／代理人／検事s 量, in every 法廷，裁判所, to a much greater sum than the salaries of the 裁判官s. The circumstance of those salaries 存在 paid by the 栄冠を与える can nowhere much 減らす the necessary expense of a 法律-控訴. But it was not so much to 減らす the expense, as to 妨げる the 汚職 of 司法（官）, that the 裁判官s were 禁じるd from receiving any 現在の or 料金 from the parties.

The office of 裁判官 is in itself so very honourable that men are willing to 受託する of it, though …を伴ってd with very small emoluments. The inferior office of 司法（官） of peace, though …に出席するd with a good 取引，協定 of trouble, and in most 事例／患者s with no emoluments at all, is an 反対する of ambition to the greater part of our country gentlemen. The salaries of all the different 裁判官s, high and low, together with the whole expense of the 行政 and 死刑執行 of 司法（官）, even where it is not managed with very good economy, makes, in any civilised country, but a very inconsiderable part of the whole expense of 政府.

The whole expense of 司法（官）, too, might easily be defrayed by the 料金s of 法廷，裁判所; and, without exposing the 行政 of 司法（官） to any real hazard of 汚職, the public 歳入 might thus be 発射する／解雇するd from a 確かな , though, perhaps, but a small incumbrance. It is difficult to 規制する the 料金s of 法廷，裁判所 effectually where a person so powerful as the 君主 is to 株 in them, and to derive any かなりの part of his 歳入 from them. It is very 平易な where the 裁判官 is the 主要な／長／主犯 person who can 得る any 利益 from them. The 法律 can very easily 強いる the 裁判官 to 尊敬（する）・点 the 規則, though it might not always be able to make the 君主 尊敬（する）・点 it. Where the 料金s of 法廷，裁判所 are 正確に 規制するd and ascertained, where they are paid all at once, at a 確かな period of every 過程, into the 手渡すs of a cashier or receiver, to be by him 分配するd in 確かな known 割合s の中で the different 裁判官s after the 過程 is decided, and not till it is decided, there seems to be no more danger of 汚職 than where such 料金s are 禁じるd altogether. Those 料金s, without occasioning any かなりの 増加する in the expense of a 訴訟, might be （判決などを）下すd fully 十分な for defraying the whole expense of 司法（官）. By not 存在 paid to the 裁判官s till the 過程 was 決定するd, they might be some incitement to the diligence of the 法廷，裁判所 in 診察するing and deciding it. In 法廷，裁判所s which consisted of a かなりの number of 裁判官s, by 割合ing the 株 of each 裁判官 to the number of hours and days which he had 雇うd in 診察するing the 過程, either in the 法廷，裁判所 or in a 委員会 by order of the 法廷，裁判所, those 料金s might give some 激励 to the diligence of each particular 裁判官. Public services are never better 成し遂げるd than when their reward comes only in consequence of their 存在 成し遂げるd, and is 割合d to the diligence 雇うd in 成し遂げるing them. In the different 議会s of フラン, the 料金s of 法廷，裁判所 (called epices and vacations) 構成する the far greater part of the emoluments of the 裁判官s. After all deductions are made, the 逮捕する salary paid by the 栄冠を与える to a counsellor or 裁判官 in the 議会 of Toulouse, in 階級 and dignity the second 議会 of the kingdom, 量s only to a hundred and fifty livres, about six 続けざまに猛撃するs eleven shillings 英貨の／純銀の a year. About seven years ago that sum was in the same place the ordinary 年一回の 給料 of a ありふれた footman. The 配当 of those epices, too, is によれば the diligence of the 裁判官s. A diligent 裁判官 伸び（る）s a comfortable, though 穏健な, 歳入 by his office: an idle one gets little more than his salary. Those 議会s are perhaps, in many 尊敬（する）・点s, not very convenient 法廷，裁判所s of 司法（官）; but they have never been （刑事）被告, they seem never even to have been 嫌疑者，容疑者／疑うd, of 汚職.

The 料金s of 法廷，裁判所 seem 初めは to have been the 主要な／長／主犯 support of the different 法廷，裁判所s of 司法（官） in England. Each 法廷，裁判所 endeavoured to draw to itself as much 商売／仕事 as it could, and was, upon that account, willing to take cognisance of many 控訴s which were not 初めは ーするつもりであるd to 落ちる under its 裁判権. The 法廷，裁判所 of King's （法廷の）裁判, 学校／設けるd for the 裁判，公判 of 犯罪の 原因（となる）s only, took cognisance of civil 控訴s; the 原告／提訴人 pretending that the 被告, in not doing him 司法（官）, had been 有罪の of some trespass or misdemeanour. The 法廷，裁判所 of 国庫, 学校／設けるd for the 徴収するing of the king's 歳入, and for 施行するing the 支払い（額） of such 負債s only as were 予定 to the king, took cognisance of all other 契約 負債s; the 原告／提訴人 主張するing that he could not 支払う／賃金 the king because the 被告 would not 支払う／賃金 him. In consequence of such fictions it （機の）カム, in many 事例／患者s, to depend altogether upon the parties before what 法廷，裁判所 they would choose to have their 原因（となる） tried; and each 法廷，裁判所 endeavoured, by superior 派遣（する） and 公平さ, to draw to itself as many 原因（となる）s as it could. The 現在の admirable 憲法 of the 法廷，裁判所s of 司法（官） in England was, perhaps, 初めは in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 formed by this emulation which anciently took place between their 各々の 裁判官s; each 裁判官 endeavouring to give, in his own 法廷，裁判所, the speediest and most effectual 治療（薬） which the 法律 would 収容する／認める for every sort of 不正. 初めは the 法廷，裁判所s of 法律 gave 損害賠償金 only for 違反 of 契約. The 法廷，裁判所 of Chancery, as a 法廷，裁判所 of 良心, first took upon it to 施行する the 明確な／細部 業績／成果 of 協定s. When the 違反 of 契約 consisted in the 非，不，無-支払い（額） of money, the 損失 支えるd could be 補償するd in no other way than by ordering 支払い（額）, which was 同等（の） to a 明確な／細部 業績／成果 of the 協定. In such 事例／患者s, therefore, the 治療（薬） of the 法廷，裁判所s of 法律 was 十分な. It was not so in others. When the tenant 告訴するd his lord for having 不正に outed him of his 賃貸し（する）, the 損害賠償金 which he 回復するd were by no means 同等（の） to the 所有／入手 of the land. Such 原因（となる）s, therefore, for some time, went all to the 法廷，裁判所 of Chancery, to the no small loss of the 法廷，裁判所s of 法律. It was to draw 支援する such 原因（となる）s to themselves that the 法廷，裁判所s of 法律 are said to have invented the 人工的な and fictitious 令状 of Ejectment, the most effectual 治療（薬） for an 不正な outer or dispossession of land.

A stamp-義務 upon the 法律 訴訟／進行s of each particular 法廷，裁判所, to be 徴収するd by that 法廷，裁判所, and 適用するd に向かって the 維持／整備 of the 裁判官s and other officers belonging to it, might, in the same manner, afford 歳入 十分な for defraying the expense of the 行政 of 司法（官）, without bringing any 重荷（を負わせる） upon the general 歳入 of the society. The 裁判官s indeed might, in this 事例／患者, be under the 誘惑 of multiplying unnecessarily the 訴訟／進行s upon every 原因（となる）, ーするために 増加する, as much as possible, the produce of such a stamp-義務. It has been the custom in modern Europe to 規制する, upon most occasions, the 支払い（額） of the 弁護士／代理人／検事s and clerks of 法廷，裁判所 によれば the number of pages which they had occasion to 令状; the 法廷，裁判所, however, 要求するing that each page should 含む／封じ込める so many lines, and each line so many words. ーするために 増加する their 支払い（額）, the 弁護士／代理人／検事s and clerks have contrived to multiply words beyond all necessity, to the 汚職 of the 法律 language of, I believe, every 法廷，裁判所 of 司法（官） in Europe. A like 誘惑 might perhaps occasion a like 汚職 in the form of 法律 訴訟／進行s.

But whether the 行政 of 司法（官） be so contrived as to defray its own expense, or whether the 裁判官s be 持続するd by 直す／買収する，八百長をするd salaries paid to them from some other 基金, it does not seem necessary that the person or persons ゆだねるd with the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする should be 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金d with the 管理／経営 of that 基金, or with the 支払い（額） of those salaries. That 基金 might arise from the rent of landed 広い地所s, the 管理／経営 of each 広い地所 存在 ゆだねるd to the particular 法廷，裁判所 which was to be 持続するd by it. That 基金 might arise even from the 利益／興味 of a sum of money, the lending out of which might, in the same manner, be ゆだねるd to the 法廷，裁判所 which was to be 持続するd by it. A part, though indeed but a small part, of the salary of the 裁判官s of the 法廷，裁判所 of 開会／開廷／会期 in Scotland arises from the 利益／興味 of a sum of money. The necessary 不安定 of such a 基金 seems, however, to （判決などを）下す it an 妥当でない one for the 維持／整備 of an 会・原則 which せねばならない last for ever.

The 分離 of the judicial from the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする seems 初めは to have arisen from the 増加するing 商売／仕事 of the society, in consequence of its 増加するing 改良. The 行政 of 司法（官） became so laborious and so 複雑にするd a 義務 as to 要求する the 分割されない attention of the persons to whom it was ゆだねるd. The person ゆだねるd with the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする not having leisure to …に出席する to the 決定／判定勝ち（する） of 私的な 原因（となる）s himself, a 副 was 任命するd to decide them in his stead. In the 進歩 of the Roman greatness, the 領事 was too much 占領するd with the political 事件／事情／状勢s of the 明言する／公表する to …に出席する to the 行政 of 司法（官）. A praetor, therefore, was 任命するd to 治める it in his stead. In the 進歩 of the European 君主国s which were 設立するd upon the 廃虚s of the Roman empire, the 君主s and the 広大な／多数の／重要な lords （機の）カム universally to consider the 行政 of 司法（官） as an office both too laborious and too ignoble for them to 遂行する／発効させる in their own persons. They universally, therefore, 発射する／解雇するd themselves of it by 任命するing a 副, （強制）執行官, or 裁判官.

When the judicial is 部隊d to the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする, it is 不十分な possible that 司法（官） should not frequently be sacrificed to what is vulgarly called polities. The persons ゆだねるd with the 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益／興味s of the 明言する／公表する may, even without any corrupt 見解（をとる）s, いつかs imagine it necessary to sacrifice to those 利益／興味s the 権利s of a 私的な man. But upon the impartial 行政 of 司法（官） depends the liberty of every individual, the sense which he has of his own 安全. ーするために make every individual feel himself perfectly 安全な・保証する in the 所有／入手 of every 権利 which belongs to him, it is not only necessary that the judicial should be separated from the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする, but that it should be （判決などを）下すd as much as possible 独立した・無所属 of that 力／強力にする. The 裁判官 should not be liable to be 除去するd from his office によれば the caprice of that 力／強力にする. The 正規の／正選手 the good-will or even upon the good economy 支払い（額） of his salary should not depend upon of that 力／強力にする.