調書をとる／予約する Four, 一時期／支部s VII-IX

• VII. Of 植民地s
  
• VIII. 結論 of the 商業の System
  
• IX. Of the 農業の Systems, or of those Systems of Political OEconomy, which 代表する the Produce of Land, as either the 単独の or the 主要な／長／主犯 Source of the 歳入 and Wealth of every Country

一時期／支部 VII
Of 植民地s

Part 1: Of the 動機s for 設立するing new 植民地s

All the different 明言する／公表するs of 古代の Greece 所有するd, each of them, but a very small 領土, and when the people in any one of them multiplied beyond what that 領土 could easily 持続する, a part of them were sent in 追求（する），探索（する） of a new habitation in some remote and distant part of the world; the warlike 隣人s who surrounded them on all 味方するs, （判決などを）下すing it difficult for any of them to 大きくする very much its 領土 at home. The 植民地s of the Dorians 訴える手段／行楽地d 主として to Italy and Sicily, which, in the times 先行する the 創立／基礎 of Rome, were 住むd by barbarous and uncivilised nations: those of the Ionians and Aeolians, the two other 広大な／多数の／重要な tribes of the Greeks, to Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean Sea, of which the inhabitants seem at that time to have been pretty much in the same 明言する／公表する as those of Sicily and Italy. The mother city, though she considered the 植民地 as a child, at all times する権利を与えるd to 広大な／多数の／重要な favour and 援助, and 借りがあるing in return much 感謝 and 尊敬（する）・点, yet considered it as an emancipated child over whom she pretended to （人命などを）奪う，主張する no direct 当局 or 裁判権. The 植民地 settled its own form of 政府, 制定するd its own 法律s, elected its own 治安判事s, and made peace or war with its 隣人s as an 独立した・無所属 明言する／公表する, which had no occasion to wait for the approbation or 同意 of the mother city. Nothing can be more plain and 際立った than the 利益／興味 which directed every such 設立.

Rome, like most of the other 古代の 共和国s, was 初めは 設立するd upon an 農地の 法律 which divided the public 領土 in a 確かな 割合 の中で the different 国民s who composed the 明言する／公表する. The course of human 事件／事情／状勢s by marriage, by succession, and by alienation, やむを得ず deranged this 初めの 分割, and frequently threw the lands, which had been allotted for the 維持／整備 of many different families, into the 所有／入手 of a 選び出す／独身 person. To 治療（薬） this disorder, for such it was supposed to be, a 法律 was made 制限するing the 量 of land which any 国民 could 所有する to five hundred jugera, about three hundred and fifty English acres. This 法律, however, though we read of its having been 遂行する／発効させるd upon one or two occasions, was either neglected or 避けるd, and the 不平等 of fortunes went on continually 増加するing. The greater part of the 国民s had no land, and without it the manners and customs of those times （判決などを）下すd it difficult for a freeman to 持続する his independency. In the 現在の time, though a poor man has no land of his own, if he has a little 在庫／株 he may either farm the lands of another, or he may carry on some little 小売 貿易（する）; and if he has no 在庫／株, he may find 雇用 either as a country labourer or as an artificer. But の中で the 古代の Romans the lands of the rich were all cultivated by slaves, who wrought under an overseer who was likewise a slave; so that a poor freeman had little chance of 存在 雇うd either as a 農業者 or as a labourer. All 貿易（する）s and 製造（する）s too, even the 小売 貿易（する）, were carried on by the slaves of the rich for the 利益 of their masters, whose wealth, 当局, and 保護 made it difficult for a poor freeman to 持続する the 競争 against them. The 国民s, therefore, who had no land, had 不十分な any other means of subsistence but the bounties of the 候補者s at the 年次の 選挙s. The tribunes, when they had a mind to animate the people against the rich and the 広大な／多数の／重要な, put them in mind of the 古代の div ision of lands, and 代表するd that 法律 which 制限するd this sort of 私的な 所有物／資産／財産 as the 根底となる 法律 of the 共和国. The people became clamorous to get land, and the rich and the 広大な／多数の／重要な, we may believe, were perfectly 決定するd not to give them any part of theirs. To 満足させる them in some 手段 therefore, they frequently 提案するd to send out a new 植民地. But 征服する／打ち勝つing Rome was, even upon such occasions, under no necessity of turning out her 国民s to 捜し出す their fortune, if one may say so, through the wide world, without knowing where they were to settle. She 割り当てるd them lands 一般に in the 征服する／打ち勝つd 州s of Italy, where, 存在 within the dominions of the 共和国, they could never form an 独立した・無所属 明言する／公表する; but were at best but a sort of 会社／団体, which, though it had the 力／強力にする of 制定するing bye-法律s for its own 政府, was at all times 支配する to the 是正, 裁判権, and 法律を制定する 当局 of the mother city. The sending out a 植民地 of this 肉親，親類d not only gave some satisfaction to the people, but often 設立するd a sort of 守備隊, too, in a newly 征服する／打ち勝つd 州, of which the obedience might さもなければ have been doubtful. A Roman 植民地 therefore, whether we consider the nature of the 設立 itself or the 動機s for making it, was altogether different from a Greek one. The words accordingly, which in the 初めの languages denote those different 設立s, have very different meanings. The Latin word (Colonia) signifies 簡単に a 農園. The Greek word apoikia, on the contrary, signifies a 分離 of dwelling, a 出発 from home, a going out of the house. But, though the Roman 植民地s were in many 尊敬（する）・点s different from the Greek ones, the 利益／興味 which 誘発するd to 設立する them was 平等に plain and 際立った. Both 会・原則s derived their origin either from irresistible necessity, or from （疑いを）晴らす and evident 公共事業（料金）／有用性.

The 設立 of the European 植民地s in America and the West Indies arose from no necessity: and though the 公共事業（料金）／有用性 which has resulted from them has been very 広大な／多数の／重要な, it is not altogether so （疑いを）晴らす and evident. It was not understood at their first 設立, and was not the 動機 either of that 設立 or of the 発見s which gave occasion to it, and the nature, extent, and 限界s of that 公共事業（料金）／有用性 are not, perhaps, 井戸／弁護士席 understood at this day.

The Venetians, during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, carried on a very advantageous 商業 in spiceries, and other East India goods, which they 分配するd の中で the other nations of Europe. They 購入（する）d them 主として in Egypt, at that time under the dominion of the Mamelukes, the enemies of the Turks, of whom the Venetians were the enemies; and this union of 利益／興味, 補助装置d by the money of Venice, formed such a 関係 as gave the Venetians almost a monopoly of the 貿易（する）.

The 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益（をあげる）s of the Venetians tempted the avidity of the Portuguese. They had been endeavouring, during the course of the fifteenth century, to find out by sea a way to the countries from which the Moors brought them ivory and gold dust across the 砂漠. They discovered the Madeiras, the Canaries, the Azores, the Cape de Verde Islands, the coast of Guinea, that of Loango, Congo, Angola, and Benguela, and, finally, the Cape of Good Hope. They had long wished to 株 in the profitable traffic of the Venetians, and this last 発見 opened to them a probable prospect of doing so. In 1497, Vasco de Gama sailed from the port of Lisbon with a (n)艦隊／(a)素早い of four ships, and after a 航海 of eleven months arrived upon the coast of Indostan, and thus 完全にするd a course of 発見s which had been 追求するd with 広大な／多数の／重要な steadiness, and with very little interruption, for nearly a century together.

Some years before this, while the 期待s of Europe were in suspense about the 事業／計画（する）s of the Portuguese, of which the success appeared yet to be doubtful, a Genoese 操縦する formed the yet more daring 事業／計画（する） of sailing to the East Indies by the West. The 状況／情勢 of those countries was at that time very imperfectly known in Europe. The few European travellers who had been there had magnified the distance, perhaps through 簡単 and ignorance, what was really very 広大な／多数の／重要な appearing almost infinite to those who could not 手段 it; or, perhaps, ーするために 増加する somewhat more the marvellous of their own adventures in visiting 地域s so immensely remote from Europe. The longer the way was by the East, Columbus very 正確に，正当に 結論するd, the shorter it would be by the West. He 提案するd, therefore, to take that way, as both the shortest and the surest, and he had the good fortune to 納得させる Isabella of Castile of the probability of his 事業／計画（する）. He sailed from the port of Palos in August 1492, nearly five years before the 探検隊／遠征隊 of Vasco de Gama 始める，決める out from Portugal, and, after a voyage of between two and three months, discovered first some of the small Bahamas or Lucayan islands, and afterwards the 広大な／多数の／重要な island of St. Domingo.

But the countries which Columbus discovered, either in this or in any of his その後の voyages, had no resemblance to those which he had gone in 追求（する），探索（する） of. Instead of the wealth, cultivation, and populousness of 中国 and Indostan, he 設立する, in St. Domingo, and in all the other parts of the new world which he ever visited, nothing but a country やめる covered with 支持を得ようと努めるd, uncultivated, and 住むd only by some tribes of naked and 哀れな savages. He was not very willing, however, to believe that they were not the same with some of the countries 述べるd by Marco Polo, the first European who had visited, or at least had left behind him, any description of 中国 or the East Indies; and a very slight resemblance, such as that which he 設立する between the 指名する of Cibao, a mountain in St. Domingo, and that of Cipango について言及するd by Marco Polo, was frequently 十分な to make him return to this favourite prepossession, though contrary to the clearest 証拠. In his letters to Ferdinand and Isabella he called the countries which he had discovered the Indies. He entertained no 疑問 but that they were the extremity of those which had been 述べるd by Marco Polo, and that they were not very distant from the ギャング（団）s, or from the countries which had been 征服する／打ち勝つd by Alexander. Even when at last 納得させるd that they were different, he still flattered himself that those rich countries were at no 広大な／多数の／重要な distance, and, in a その後の voyage, accordingly, went in 追求（する），探索（する） of them along the coast of Terra Firma, and に向かって the Isthmus of Darien.

In consequence of this mistake of Columbus, the 指名する of the Indies has stuck to those unfortunate countries ever since; and when it was at last 明確に discovered that the new were altogether different from the old Indies, the former were called the West, in contradistinction to the latter, which were called the East Indies.

It was of importance to Columbus, however, that the countries which he had discovered, whatever they were, should be 代表するd to the 法廷，裁判所 of Spain as of very 広大な／多数の／重要な consequence; and, in what 構成するs the real riches of every country, the animal and vegetable 生産／産物s of the 国／地域, there was at that time nothing which could 井戸／弁護士席 正当化する such a 代表 of them.

The Cori, something between a ネズミ and a rabbit, and supposed by Mr. Buffon to be the same with the Aperea of Brazil, was the largest viviparous quadruped in St. Domingo. This 種類 seems never to have been very 非常に／多数の, and the dogs and cats of the Spaniards are said to have long ago almost 完全に extirpated it, 同様に as some other tribes of a still smaller size. These, however, together with a pretty large lizard, called the ivana, or iguana, 構成するd the 主要な／長／主犯 part of the animal food which the land afforded.

The vegetable food of the inhabitants, though from their want of 産業 not very abundant, was not altogether so scanty. It consisted in Indian corn, yams, potatoes, 気が狂って, etc., 工場／植物s which were then altogether unknown in Europe, and which have never since been very much esteemed in it, or supposed to 産する／生じる a sustenance equal to what is drawn from the ありふれた sorts of 穀物 and pulse, which have been cultivated in this part of the world time out of mind.

The cotton 工場／植物, indeed, afforded the 構成要素 of a very important 製造（する）, and was at that time to Europeans undoubtedly the most 価値のある of all the vegetable 生産／産物s of those islands. But though in the end of the fifteenth century the muslins and other cotton goods of the East Indies were much esteemed in every part of Europe, the cotton 製造（する） itself was not cultivated in any part of it. Even this 生産／産物, therefore, could not at that time appear in the 注目する，もくろむs of Europeans to be of very 広大な／多数の／重要な consequence.

Finding nothing either in the animals or vegetables of the newly discovered countries which could 正当化する a very advantageous 代表 of them, Columbus turned his 見解（をとる） に向かって their minerals; and in the richness of the 生産／産物s of this third kingdom, he flattered himself he had 設立する a 十分な 補償（金） for the insignificancy of those of the other two. The little bits of gold with which the inhabitants ornamented their dress, and which, he was 知らせるd, they frequently 設立する in the rivulets and 激流s that fell from the mountains, were 十分な to 満足させる him that those mountains abounded with the richest gold 地雷s. St. Domingo, therefore, was 代表するd as a country abounding with gold, and, upon that account, (によれば the prejudices not only of the 現在の time, but of those times) an inexhaustible source of real wealth to the 栄冠を与える and kingdom of Spain. When Columbus, upon his return from his first voyage, was introduced with a sort of triumphal honours to the 君主s of Castile and Arragon, the 主要な／長／主犯 生産／産物s of the countries which he had discovered were carried in solemn 行列 before him. The only 価値のある part of them consisted in some little fillets, bracelets, and other ornaments of gold, and in some bales of cotton. The 残り／休憩（する） were mere 反対するs of vulgar wonder and curiosity; some reeds of an 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の size, some birds of a very beautiful plumage, and some stuffed 肌s of the 抱擁する alligator and manati; all of which were に先行するd by six or seven of the wretched natives, whose singular colour and 外見 追加するd 大いに to the novelty of the show.

In consequence of the 代表s of Columbus, the 会議 of Castile 決定するd to take 所有／入手 of countries of which the inhabitants were plainly incapable of defending themselves. The pious 目的 of 変えるing them to Christianity sanctified the 不正 of the 事業／計画（する）. But the hope of finding treasures of gold there was the 単独の 動機 which 誘発するd him to 請け負う it; and to give this 動機 the greater 負わせる, it was 提案するd by Columbus that the half of all the gold and silver that should be 設立する there should belong to the 栄冠を与える. This 提案 was 認可するd of by the 会議.

As long as the whole or the far greater part of the gold, which the first adventurers 輸入するd into Europe, was got by so very 平易な a method as the plundering of the defenceless natives, it was not perhaps very difficult to 支払う／賃金 even this 激しい 税金. But when the natives were once 公正に／かなり stripped of all that they had, which, in St. Domingo, and in all the other countries discovered by Columbus, was done 完全に in six or eight years, and when ーするために find more it had become necessary to dig for it in the 地雷s, there was no longer any 可能性 of 支払う／賃金ing this 税金. The rigorous exaction of it, accordingly, first occasioned, it is said, the total abandoning of the 地雷s of St. Domingo, which have never been wrought since. It was soon 減ずるd therefore to a third; then to a fifth; afterwards to a tenth; and at last to a twentieth part of the 甚だしい／１２ダース produce of the gold 地雷s. The 税金 upon silver continued for a long time to be a fifth of the 甚だしい／１２ダース produce. It was 減ずるd to a tenth only in the course of the 現在の century. But the first adventurers do not appear to have been much 利益／興味d about silver. Nothing いっそう少なく precious than gold seemed worthy of their attention.

All the other 企業s of the Spaniards in the new world, その後の to those of Columbus, seem to have been 誘発するd by the same 動機. It was the sacred かわき of gold that carried Oieda, Nicuessa, and Vasco Nugnes de Balboa, to the Isthmus of Darien, that carried Cortez to Mexico, and Almagro and Pizzarro to Chili and Peru. When those adventurers arrived upon any unknown coast, their first 調査 was always if there was any gold to be 設立する there; and によれば the （警察などへの）密告，告訴（状） which they received 関心ing this particular, they 決定するd either to やめる the country or to settle in it.

Of all those expensive and uncertain 事業／計画（する）s, however, which bring 破産 upon the greater part of the people who engage in them, there is 非，不，無 perhaps more ruinous than the search after new silver and gold 地雷s. It is perhaps the most disadvantageous 宝くじ in the world, or the one in which the 伸び（る） of those who draw the prizes 耐えるs the least 割合 to the loss of those who draw the blanks: for though the prizes are few and the blanks many, the ありふれた price of a ticket is the whole fortune of a very rich man. 事業／計画（する）s of 採掘, instead of 取って代わるing the 資本／首都 雇うd in them, together with the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, 一般的に 吸収する both 資本／首都 and 利益（をあげる）. They are the 事業／計画（する）s, therefore, to which of all others a 慎重な lawgiver, who 願望（する）d to 増加する the 資本／首都 of his nation, would least choose to give any 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 激励, or to turn に向かって them a greater 株 of that 資本／首都 than that would go to them of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える. Such in reality is the absurd 信用／信任 which almost all men have in their own good fortune that, wherever there is the least probability of success, too 広大な／多数の／重要な a 株 of it is apt to go to them of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える.

But though the judgment of sober 推論する／理由 and experience 関心ing such 事業／計画（する）s has always been 極端に unfavourable, that of human avidity has 一般的に been やめる さもなければ. The same passion which has 示唆するd to so many people the absurd idea of the philosopher's 石／投石する, has 示唆するd to others the 平等に absurd one of 巨大な rich 地雷s of gold and silver. They did not consider that the value of those metals has, in all ages and nations, arisen 主として from their scarcity, and that their scarcity has arisen from the very small 量s of them which nature has anywhere deposited in one place, from the hard and intractable 実体s with which she has almost everywhere surrounded those small 量s, and その結果 from the 労働 and expense which are everywhere necessary ーするために 侵入する to and get at them. They flattered themselves that veins of those metals might in many places be 設立する as large and as abundant as those which are 一般的に 設立する of lead, or 巡査, or tin, or アイロンをかける. The dream of Sir Walter Raleigh 関心ing the golden city and country of Eldorado, may 満足させる us that even wise men are not always 免除された from such strange delusions. More than a hundred years after the death of that 広大な／多数の／重要な man, the Jesuit Gumila was still 納得させるd of the reality of that wonderful country, and 表明するd with 広大な／多数の／重要な warmth, and I dare to say with 広大な／多数の／重要な 誠実, how happy he should be to carry the light of the gospel to a people who could so 井戸／弁護士席 reward the pious 労働s of their missionary.

In the countries first discovered by the Spaniards, no gold or silver 地雷s are at 現在の known which are supposed to be 価値（がある） the working. The 量s of those metals which the first adventurers are said to have 設立する there had probably been very much magnified, 同様に as the fertility of the 地雷s which were wrought すぐに after the first 発見. What those adventurers were 報告（する）／憶測d to have 設立する, however, was 十分な to inflame the avidity of all their countrymen. Every Spaniard who sailed to America 推定する／予想するd to find an Eldorado. Fortune, too, did upon this what she has done upon very few other occasions. She realized in some 手段 the extravagant hopes of her votaries, and in the 発見 and conquest of Mexico and Peru (of which the one happened about thirty, the other about forty years after the first 探検隊／遠征隊 of Columbus), she 現在のd them with something not very unlike that profusion of the precious metals which they sought for.

A 事業／計画（する） of 商業 to the East Indies, therefore, gave occasion to the first 発見 of the West. A 事業／計画（する） of conquest gave occasion to all the 設立s of the Spaniards in those newly discovered countries. The 動機 which excited them to this conquest was a 事業／計画（する） of gold and silver 地雷s; and a course of 事故s, which no human 知恵 could 予知する, （判決などを）下すd this 事業／計画（する） much more successful than the undertakers had any reasonable grounds for 推定する／予想するing.

The first adventurers of all the other nations of Europe who 試みる／企てるd to make 解決／入植地s in America were animated by the like chimerical 見解（をとる）s; but they were not 平等に successful. It was more than a hundred years after the first 解決／入植地 of the Brazils before any silver, gold, or diamond 地雷s were discovered there. In the English, French, Dutch, and Danish 植民地s, 非，不，無 have ever yet been discovered; at least 非，不，無 that are at 現在の supposed to be 価値（がある） the working. The first English 植民／開拓者s in North America, however, 申し込む／申し出d a fifth of all the gold and silver which should be 設立する there to the king, as a 動機 for 認めるing them their 特許s. In the 特許s to Sir Walter Raleigh, to the London and Plymouth Companies, to the 会議 of Plymouth, etc., this fifth was accordingly reserved to the 栄冠を与える. To the 期待 of finding gold and silver 地雷s, those first 植民／開拓者s, too, joined that of discovering a northwest passage to the East Indies. They have hitherto been disappointed in both.

Part 2: 原因（となる）s of 繁栄 of New 植民地s

The colonists carry out with them a knowledge of 農業 and of other useful arts superior to what can grow up of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える in the course of many centuries の中で savage and barbarous nations. They carry out with them, too, the habit of subordination, some notion of the 正規の／正選手 政府 which takes place in their own country, of the system of 法律s which support it, and of a 正規の／正選手 行政 of 司法（官）; and they 自然に 設立する something of the same 肉親，親類d in the new 解決／入植地. But の中で savage and barbarous nations, the natural 進歩 of 法律 and 政府 is still slower than the natural 進歩 of arts, after 法律 and 政府 have been go far 設立するd as is necessary for their 保護. Every colonist gets more land than he can かもしれない cultivate. He has no rent, and 不十分な any 税金s to 支払う／賃金. No landlord 株 with him in its produce, and the 株 of the 君主 is 一般的に but a trifle. He has every 動機 to （判決などを）下す as 広大な／多数の／重要な as possible a produce, which is thus to be almost 完全に his own. But his land is 一般的に so 広範囲にわたる that, with all his own 産業, and with all the 産業 of other people whom he can get to 雇う, he can seldom make it produce the tenth part of what it is 有能な of producing. He is eager, therefore, to collect labourers from all ４半期/4分の1s, and to reward them with the most 自由主義の 給料. But those 自由主義の 給料, joined to the plenty and cheapness of land, soon make those labourers leave him, ーするために become landlords themselves, and to reward, with equal liberality, other labourers, who soon leave them for the same 推論する／理由 that they left their first master. The 自由主義の reward of 労働 encourages marriage. The children, during the tender years of 幼少／幼藍期, are 井戸／弁護士席 fed and 適切に taken care of, and when they are grown up, the value of their 労働 大いに overpays their 維持／整備. When arrived at 成熟, the high price of 労働, and the low price of land, enable them to 設立する themselves in the same manner as their fathers did before th em.

In other countries, rent and 利益（をあげる） eat up 給料, and the two superior orders of people 抑圧する the inferior one. But in new 植民地s the 利益／興味 of the two superior orders 強いるs them to 扱う／治療する the inferior one with more generosity and humanity; at least where that inferior one is not in a 明言する／公表する of slavery. Waste lands of the greatest natural fertility are to be had for a trifle. The 増加する of 歳入 which the proprietor, who is always the undertaker, 推定する／予想するs from their 改良, 構成するs his 利益（をあげる） which in these circumstances is 一般的に very 広大な／多数の／重要な. But this 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益（をあげる） cannot be made without 雇うing the 労働 of other people in （疑いを）晴らすing and cultivating the land; and the disproportion between the 広大な／多数の／重要な extent of the land and the small number of the people, which 一般的に takes place in new 植民地s, makes it difficult for him to get this 労働. He does not, therefore, 論争 about 給料, but is willing to 雇う 労働 at any price. The high 給料 of 労働 encourage 全住民. The cheapness and plenty of good land encourage 改良, and enable the proprietor to 支払う／賃金 those high 給料. In those 給料 consists almost the whole price of the land; and though they are high considered as the 給料 of 労働, they are low considered as the price of what is so very 価値のある. What encourages the 進歩 of 全住民 and 改良 encourages that of real wealth and greatness.

The 進歩 of many of the 古代の Greek 植民地s に向かって wealth and greatness seems accordingly to have been very 早い. In the course of a century or two, several of them appear to have rivalled, and even to have より勝るd their mother cities. Syracuse and Agrigentum in Sicily, Tarentum and Locri in Italy, Ephesus and Miletus in Lesser Asia, appear by all accounts to have been at least equal to any of the cities of 古代の Greece. Though posterior in their 設立, yet all the arts of refinement, philosophy, poetry, and eloquence seem to have been cultivated as 早期に, and to have been 改善するd as 高度に in them as in any part of the mother country. The schools of the two oldest Greek philosophers, those of Thales and Pythagoras, were 設立するd, it is remarkable, not in 古代の Greece, but the one in an Asiatic, the other in an Italian 植民地. All those 植民地s had 設立するd themselves in countries 住むd by savage and barbarous nations, who easily gave place to the new 植民／開拓者s. They had plenty of good land, and as they were altogether 独立した・無所属 of the mother city, they were at liberty to manage their own 事件／事情／状勢s in the way that they 裁判官d was most suitable to their own 利益／興味.

The history of the Roman 植民地s is by no means so brilliant. Some of them, indeed, such as Florence, have in the course of many ages, and after the 落ちる of the mother city, grown up to be かなりの 明言する／公表するs. But the 進歩 of no one of them seems ever to have been very 早い. They were all 設立するd in 征服する／打ち勝つd 州s, which in most 事例／患者s had been fully 住むd before. The 量 of land 割り当てるd to each colonist was seldom very かなりの, and as the 植民地 was not 独立した・無所属, they were not always at liberty to manage their own 事件／事情／状勢s in the way they 裁判官d was most suitable to their own 利益／興味.

In the plenty of good land, the European 植民地s 設立するd in America and the West Indies 似ている, and even 大いに より勝る, those of 古代の Greece. In their dependency upon the mother 明言する／公表する, they 似ている those of 古代の Rome; but their 広大な／多数の／重要な distance from Europe has in all of them 緩和するd more or いっそう少なく the 影響s of this dependency. Their 状況／情勢 has placed them いっそう少なく in the 見解（をとる） and いっそう少なく in the 力／強力にする of their mother country. In 追求するing their 利益／興味 their own way, their 行為／行う has, upon many occasions, been overlooked, either because not known or not understood in Europe; and upon some occasions it has been 公正に／かなり 苦しむd and submitted to, because their distance （判決などを）下すd it difficult to 抑制する it. Even the violent and 独断的な 政府 of Spain has, upon many occasions, been 強いるd to 解任する or 軟化する the orders which had been given for the 政府 of her 植民地s for 恐れる of a general insurrection. The 進歩 of all the European 植民地s in wealth, 全住民, and 改良, has accordingly been very 広大な／多数の／重要な.

The 栄冠を与える of Spain, by its 株 of the gold and silver, derived some 歳入 from its 植民地s from the moment of their first 設立. It was a 歳入, too, of a nature to excite in human avidity the most extravagant 期待s of still greater riches. The Spanish 植民地s, therefore, from the moment of their first 設立, attracted very much the attention of their mother country, while those of the other European nations were for a long time in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 neglected. The former did not, perhaps, 栄える the better in consequence of this attention; nor the latter the worse in consequence of this neglect. In 割合 to the extent of the country which they in some 手段 所有する, the Spanish 植民地s are considered as いっそう少なく populous and 栄えるing than those of almost any other European nation. The 進歩 even of the Spanish 植民地s, however, in 全住民 and 改良, has certainly been very 早い and very 広大な／多数の／重要な. The city of Lima, 設立するd since the conquest, is 代表するd by Ulloa as 含む／封じ込めるing fifty thousand inhabitants 近づく thirty years ago. Quito, which had been but a 哀れな hamlet of Indians, is 代表するd by the same author as in his time 平等に populous. Gemelli Carreri, a pretended traveller, it is said, indeed, but who seems everywhere to have written upon 極端に good （警察などへの）密告，告訴（状）, 代表するs the city of Mexico as 含む／封じ込めるing a hundred thousand inhabitants; a number which, in spite of all the exaggerations of the Spanish writers, is, probably, more than five times greater than what it 含む／封じ込めるd in the time of Montezuma. These numbers 越える 大いに those of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, the three greatest cities of the English 植民地s. Before the conquest of the Spaniards there were no cattle fit for draught either in Mexico or Peru. The llama was their only beast of 重荷（を負わせる）, and its strength seems to have been a good 取引，協定 inferior to that of a ありふれた ass. The plough was unknown の中で them. They were ignorant of the use of アイロンをかける. They had no coined money, nor any es tablished 器具 of 商業 of any 肉親，親類d. Their 商業 was carried on by 物々交換する. A sort of 木造の spade was their 主要な／長／主犯 器具 of 農業. Sharp 石／投石するs served them for knives and hatchets to 削減（する） with; fish bones and the hard sinews of 確かな animals served them for needles to sew with; and these seem to have been their 主要な／長／主犯 器具s of 貿易（する）. In this 明言する／公表する of things, it seems impossible that either of those empires could have been so much 改善するd or so 井戸／弁護士席 cultivated as at 現在の, when they are plentifully furnished with all sorts of European cattle, and when the use of アイロンをかける, of the plough, and of many of the arts of Europe, has been introduced の中で them. But the populousness of every country must be in 割合 to the degree of its 改良 and cultivation. In spite of the cruel 破壊 of the natives which followed the conquest, these two 広大な／多数の／重要な empires are, probably, more populous now than they ever were before: and the people are surely very different; for we must 認める, I apprehend, that the Spanish creoles are in many 尊敬（する）・点s superior to the 古代の Indians.

After the 解決／入植地s of the Spaniards, that of the Portuguese in Brazil is the oldest of any European nation in America. But as for a long time after the first 発見 neither gold nor silver 地雷s were 設立する in it, and as it afforded, upon that account, little or no 歳入 to the 栄冠を与える, it was for a long time in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 neglected; and during this 明言する／公表する of neglect it grew up to be a 広大な／多数の／重要な and powerful 植民地. While Portugal was under the dominion of Spain, Brazil was attacked by the Dutch, who got 所有／入手 of seven of the fourteen 州s into which it is divided. They 推定する／予想するd soon to 征服する／打ち勝つ the other seven, when Portugal 回復するd its independency by the elevation of the family of Braganza to the 王位. The Dutch then, as enemies to the Spaniards, became friends to the Portuguese, who were likewise the enemies of the Spaniards. They agreed, therefore, to leave that part of Brazil, which they had not 征服する／打ち勝つd, to the King of Portugal, who agreed to leave that part which they had 征服する／打ち勝つd to them, as a 事柄 not 価値（がある） 論争ing about with such good 同盟（する）s. But the Dutch 政府 soon began to 抑圧する the Portuguese colonists, who, instead of amusing themselves with （民事の）告訴s, took 武器 against their new masters, and by their own valour and 決意／決議, with the 黙認, indeed, but without any avowed 援助 from the mother country, drove them out of Brazil. The Dutch, therefore, finding it impossible to keep any part of the country to themselves, were contented that it should be 完全に 回復するd to the 栄冠を与える of Portugal. In this 植民地 there are said to be more than six hundred thousand people, either Portuguese or descended from Portuguese, creoles, mulattoes, and a mixed race between Portuguese and Brazilians. No one 植民地 in America is supposed to 含む／封じ込める so 広大な／多数の／重要な a number of people of European extraction.

に向かって the end of the fifteenth, and during the greater part of the sixteenth century, Spain and Portugal were the two 広大な／多数の／重要な 海軍の 力／強力にするs upon the ocean; for though the 商業 of Venice 延長するd to every part of Europe, its (n)艦隊／(a)素早いs had 不十分な ever sailed beyond the Mediterranean. The Spaniards, in virtue of the first 発見, （人命などを）奪う，主張するd all America as their own; and though they could not 妨げる so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 海軍の 力／強力にする as that of Portugal from settling in Brazil, such was, at that time, the terror of their 指名する, that the greater part of the other nations of Europe were afraid to 設立する themselves in any other part of that 広大な／多数の／重要な continent. The French, who 試みる／企てるd to settle in Florida, were all 殺人d by the Spaniards. But the declension of the 海軍の 力／強力にする of this latter nation, in consequence of the 敗北・負かす or miscarriage of what they called their Invincible Armada, which happened に向かって the end of the sixteenth century, put it out of their 力／強力にする to 妨害する any longer the 解決／入植地s of the other European nations. In the course of the seventeenth century, therefore, the English, French, Dutch, Danes, and Swedes, all the 広大な／多数の／重要な nations who had any ports upon the ocean, 試みる／企てるd to make some 解決／入植地s in the new world.

The Swedes 設立するd themselves in New Jersey; and the number of Swedish families still to be 設立する there 十分に 論証するs that this 植民地 was very likely to 栄える had it been 保護するd by the mother country. But 存在 neglected by Sweden, it was soon swallowed up by the Dutch 植民地 of New York, which again, in 1674, fell under the dominion of the English.

The small islands of St. Thomas and Santa Cruz are the only countries in the new world that have ever been 所有するd By the Danes. These little 解決／入植地s, too, were under the 政府 of an 排除的 company, which had the 単独の 権利, both of 購入（する）ing the 黒字／過剰 produce of the colonists, and of 供給（する）ing them with such goods of other countries as they 手配中の，お尋ね者, and which, therefore, both in its 購入（する）s and sales, had not only the 力／強力にする of 抑圧するing them, but the greatest 誘惑 to do so. The 政府 of an 排除的 company of merchants is, perhaps, the worst of all 政府s for any country whatever. It was not, however, able to stop altogether the 進歩 of these 植民地s, though it （判決などを）下すd it more slow and languid. The late King of Denmark 解散させるd this company, and since that time the 繁栄 of these 植民地s has been very 広大な／多数の／重要な.

The Dutch 解決／入植地s in the West, 同様に as those in the East Indies, were 初めは put under the 政府 of an 排除的 company. The 進歩 of some of them, therefore, though it has been かなりの, in comparison with that of almost any country that has been long peopled and 設立するd, has been languid and slow in comparison with that of the greater part of new 植民地s. The 植民地 of Surinam, though very かなりの, is still inferior to the greater part of the sugar 植民地s of the other European nations. The 植民地 of Nova Belgia, now divided into the two 州s of New York and New Jersey, would probably have soon become かなりの too, even though it had remained under the 政府 of the Dutch. The plenty and cheapness of good land are such powerful 原因（となる）s of 繁栄 that the very worst 政府 is 不十分な 有能な of checking altogether the efficacy of their 操作／手術. The 広大な／多数の／重要な distance, too, from the mother country would enable the colonists to 避ける more or いっそう少なく, by 密輸するing, the monopoly which the company enjoyed against them. At 現在の the company 許すs all Dutch ships to 貿易（する） to Surinam upon 支払う／賃金ing two and a half per cent upon the value of their 貨物 for a licence; and only reserves to itself 排他的に the direct 貿易（する） from Africa to America, which consists almost 完全に in the slave 貿易（する）. This 緩和 in the 排除的 特権s of the company is probably the 主要な／長／主犯 原因（となる） of that degree of 繁栄 which that 植民地 at 現在の enjoys. Curacoa and Eustatia, the two 主要な／長／主犯 islands belonging to the Dutch, are 解放する／自由な ports open to the ships of all nations; and this freedom, in the 中央 of better 植民地s whose ports are open to those of one nation only, has been the 広大な／多数の／重要な 原因（となる） of the 繁栄 of those two barren islands.

The French 植民地 of Canada was, during the greater part of the last century, and some part of the 現在の, under the 政府 of an 排除的 company. Under so unfavourable an 行政 its 進歩 was やむを得ず very slow in comparison with that of other new 植民地s; but it became much more 早い when this company was 解散させるd after the 落ちる of what is called the Mississippi 計画／陰謀. When the English got 所有／入手 of this country, they 設立する in it 近づく 二塁打 the number of inhabitants which Father Charlevoix had 割り当てるd to it between twenty and thirty years before. That Jesuit had travelled over the whole country, and had no inclination to 代表する it as いっそう少なく かなりの than it really was.

The French 植民地 of St. Domingo was 設立するd by 著作権侵害者s and freebooters, who, for a long time, neither 要求するd the 保護, nor 定評のある the 当局 of フラン; and when that race of banditti became so far 国民s as to 認める this 当局, it was for a long time necessary to 演習 it with very 広大な／多数の／重要な gentleness. During this period the 全住民 and 改良 of this 植民地 増加するd very 急速な／放蕩な. Even the 圧迫 of the 排除的 company, to which it was for some time 支配するd, with all the other 植民地s of フラン, though it no 疑問 retarded, had not been able to stop its 進歩 altogether. The course of its 繁栄 returned as soon as it was relieved from that 圧迫. It is now the most important of the sugar 植民地s of the West Indies, and its produce is said to be greater than that of all the English sugar 植民地s put together. The other sugar 植民地s of フラン are in general all very 栄えるing.

But there are no 植民地s of which the 進歩 has been more 早い than that of the English in North America.

Plenty of good land, and liberty to manage their own 事件／事情／状勢s their own way, seem to be the two 広大な／多数の／重要な 原因（となる）s of the 繁栄 of all new 植民地s.

In the plenty of good land the English 植民地s of North America, though no 疑問 very abundantly 供給するd, are however inferior to those of the Spaniards and Portuguese, and not superior to some of those 所有するd by the French before the late war. But the political 会・原則s of the English 植民地s have been more favourable to the 改良 and cultivation of this land than those of any of the other three nations.

First, the engrossing of uncultivated land, though it has by no means been 妨げるd altogether, has been more 抑制するd in the English 植民地s than in any other. The 植民地 法律 which 課すs upon every proprietor the 義務 of 改善するing and cultivating, within a 限られた／立憲的な time, a 確かな 割合 of his lands, and which in 事例／患者 of 失敗, 宣言するs those neglected lands grantable to any other person, though it has not, perhaps, been very 厳密に 遂行する／発効させるd, has, however, had some 影響.

Secondly, in Pennsylvania there is no 権利 of primogeniture, and lands, like movables, are divided 平等に の中で all the children of the family. In three of the 州s of New England the oldest has only a 二塁打 株, as in the Mosaical 法律. Though in those 州s, therefore, too 広大な／多数の／重要な a 量 of land should いつかs be engrossed by a particular individual, it is likely, in the course of a 世代 or two, to be 十分に divided again. In the other English 植民地s, indeed, the 権利 of primogeniture takes place, as in the 法律 of England. But in all the English 植民地s the 任期 of the lands, which are all held by 解放する／自由な socage, 容易にするs alienation, and the grantee of any 広範囲にわたる tract of land 一般に finds it for his 利益／興味 to 疎遠にする, as 急速な／放蕩な as he can, the greater part of it, reserving only a small やめる-rent. In the Spanish and Portuguese 植民地s, what is called the 権利 of Majorazzo takes place in the succession of all those 広大な／多数の／重要な 広い地所s to which any 肩書を与える of honour is 別館d. Such 広い地所s go all to one person, and are in 影響 entailed and unalienable. The French 植民地s, indeed, are 支配する to the custom of Paris, which, in the 相続物件 of land, is much more favourable to the younger children than the 法律 of England. But in the French 植民地s, if any part of an 広い地所, held by the noble 任期 of chivalry and homage, is 疎遠にするd, it is, for a 限られた／立憲的な time, 支配する to the 権利 of redemption, either by the 相続人 of the superior or by the 相続人 of the family; and all the largest 広い地所s of the country are held by such noble 任期s, which やむを得ず embarrass alienation. But in a new 植民地 a 広大な／多数の／重要な uncultivated 広い地所 is likely to be much more speedily divided by alienation than by succession. The plenty and cheapness of good land, it has already been 観察するd, are the 主要な／長／主犯 原因（となる）s of the 早い 繁栄 of new 植民地s. The engrossing of land, in 影響, destroys this plenty and cheapness. The engrossing of uncultivated land, besides, is the greatest obstruction to its 改良. But the 労働 that is 雇うd in the 改良 and cultivation of land affords the greatest and most 価値のある produce to the society. The produce of 労働, in this 事例／患者, 支払う／賃金s not only its own 給料, and the 利益（をあげる） of the 在庫／株 which 雇うs it, but the rent of the land too upon which it is 雇うd. The 労働 of the English colonists, therefore, 存在 more 雇うd in the 改良 and cultivation of land, is likely to afford a greater and more 価値のある produce than that of any of the other three nations, which, by the engrossing of land, is more or いっそう少なく コースを変えるd に向かって other 雇用s.

Thirdly, the 労働 of the English colonists is not only likely to afford a greater and more 価値のある produce, but, in consequence of the moderation of their 税金s, a greater 割合 of this produce belongs to themselves, which they may 蓄える／店 up and 雇う in putting into 動議 a still greater 量 of 労働. The English colonists have never yet 与える／捧げるd anything に向かって the defence of the mother country, or に向かって the support of its civil 政府. They themselves, on the contrary, have hitherto been defended almost 完全に at the expense of the mother country. But the expense of (n)艦隊／(a)素早いs and armies is out of all 割合 greater than the necessary expense of civil 政府. The expense of their own civil 政府 has always been very 穏健な. It has 一般に been 限定するd to what was necessary for 支払う／賃金ing competent salaries to the 知事, to the 裁判官s, and to some other officers of police, and for 持続するing a few of the most useful public 作品. The expense of the civil 設立 of Massachusetts Bay, before the 開始／学位授与式 of the 現在の 騒動s, used to be but about L18,000 a year. That of New Hampshire and Rhode Island, L3500 each. That of Connecticut, L4000. That of New York and Pennsylvania, L4500 each. That of New Jersey, L1200. That of Virginia and South Carolina, L8000 each. The civil 設立s of Nova Scotia and Georgia are partly supported by an 年次の 認める of 議会. But Nova Scotia 支払う／賃金s, besides, about L7000 a year に向かって the public expenses of the 植民地; and Georgia about L2500 a year. All the different civil 設立s in North America, in short, 排除的 of those of Maryland and North Carolina, of which no exact account has been got, did not, before the 開始／学位授与式 of the 現在の 騒動s, cost the inhabitants above L64,700 a year; an ever-memorable example at how small an expense three millions of people may not only be 治める／統治するd, but 井戸／弁護士席 治める／統治するd. The most important part of the expense of 政府, indeed, that of defence and protectio n, has 絶えず fallen upon the mother country. The 儀式の, too, of the civil 政府 in the 植民地s, upon the 歓迎会 of a new 知事, upon the 開始 of a new 議会, etc., though 十分に decent, is not …を伴ってd with any expensive pomp or parade. Their ecclesiastical 政府 is 行為／行うd upon a 計画（する） 平等に frugal. Tithes are unknown の中で them; and their clergy, who are far from 存在 非常に／多数の, are 持続するd either by 穏健な stipends, or by the voluntary 出資／貢献s of the people. The 力／強力にする of Spain and Portugal, on the contrary, derives some support from the 税金s 徴収するd upon their 植民地s. フラン, indeed, has never drawn any かなりの 歳入 from its 植民地s, the 税金s which it 徴収するs upon them 存在 一般に spent の中で them. But the 植民地 政府 of all these three nations is 行為／行うd upon a much more expensive 儀式の. The sums spent upon the 歓迎会 of a new viceroy of Peru, for example, have frequently been enormous. Such 儀式のs are not only real 税金s paid by the rich colonists upon those particular occasions, but they serve to introduce の中で them the habit of vanity and expense upon all other occasions. They are not only very grievous 時折の 税金s, but they 与える／捧げる to 設立する perpetual 税金s of the same 肉親，親類d still more grievous; the ruinous 税金s of 私的な 高級な and extravagance. In the 植民地s of all those three nations too, the ecclesiastical 政府 is 極端に oppressive. Tithes take place in all of them, and are 徴収するd with the 最大の rigour in those of Spain and Portugal. All of them, besides, are 抑圧するd with a 非常に／多数の race of mendicant friars, whose beggary 存在 not only licensed but consecrated by 宗教, is a most grievous 税金 upon the poor people, who are most carefully taught that it is a 義務 to give, and a very 広大な／多数の／重要な sin to 辞退する them their charity. Over and above all this, the clergy are, in all of them, the greatest engrossers of land.

Fourthly, in the 処分 of their 黒字／過剰 produce, or of what is over and above their own 消費, the English 植民地s have been more favoured, and have been 許すd a more 広範囲にわたる market, than those of any other European nation. Every European nation has endeavoured more or いっそう少なく to monopolise to itself the 商業 of its 植民地s, and, upon that account, has 禁じるd the ships of foreign nations from 貿易（する）ing to them, and has 禁じるd them from 輸入するing European goods from any foreign nation. But the manner in which this monopoly has been 演習d in different nations has been very different.

Some nations have given up the whole 商業 of their 植民地s to an 排除的 company, of whom the colonists were 強いるd to buy all such European goods as they 手配中の，お尋ね者, and to whom they were 強いるd to sell the whole of their own 黒字／過剰 produce. It was the 利益／興味 of the company, therefore, not only to sell the former as dear, and to buy the latter as cheap as possible, but to buy no more of the latter, even at this low price than what they could 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of for a very high price in Europe. It was their 利益／興味, not only to degrade in all 事例／患者s the value of the 黒字／過剰 produce of the 植民地, but in many 事例／患者s to discourage and keep 負かす／撃墜する the natural 増加する of its 量. Of all the expedients that can 井戸／弁護士席 be contrived to stunt the natural growth of a new 植民地, that of an 排除的 company is undoubtedly the most effectual. This, however, has been the 政策 of Holland, though their company, in the course of the 現在の century, has given up in many 尊敬（する）・点s the exertion of their 排除的 特権. This, too, was the 政策 of Denmark till the 統治する of the late king. It has occasionally been the 政策 of フラン, and of late, since 1755, after it had been abandoned by all other nations on account of its absurdity, it has become the 政策 of Portugal with regard at least to two of the 主要な／長／主犯 州s of Brazil, Fernambuco and Marannon.

Other nations, without 設立するing an 排除的 company, have 限定するd the whole 商業 of their 植民地s to a particular port of the mother country, from whence no ship was 許すd to sail, but either in a (n)艦隊／(a)素早い and at a particular season, or, if 選び出す／独身, in consequence of a particular licence, which in most 事例／患者s was very 井戸／弁護士席 paid for. This 政策 opened, indeed, the 貿易（する） of the 植民地s to all the natives of the mother country, 供給するd they 貿易（する）d from the proper port, at the proper season, and in the proper 大型船s. But as all the different merchants, who joined their 在庫／株s ーするために fit out those licensed 大型船s, would find it for their 利益／興味 to 行為／法令／行動する in concert, the 貿易（する） which was carried on in this manner would やむを得ず be 行為／行うd very nearly upon the same 原則s as that of an 排除的 company. The 利益（をあげる） of those merchants would be almost 平等に exorbitant and oppressive. The 植民地s would be ill 供給（する）d, and would be 強いるd both to buy very dear, and to sell very cheap. This, however, till within these few years, had always been the 政策 of Spain, and the price of all European goods, accordingly, is said to have been enormous in the Spanish West Indies. At Quito, we are told by Ulloa, a 続けざまに猛撃する of アイロンをかける sold for about four and sixpence, and a 続けざまに猛撃する of steel for about six and ninepence 英貨の／純銀の. But it is 主として ーするために 購入（する） European goods that the 植民地s part with their own produce. The more, therefore, they 支払う／賃金 for the one, the いっそう少なく they really get for the other, and the dearness of the one is the same thing with the cheapness of the other. The 政策 of Portugal is in this 尊敬（する）・点 the same as the 古代の 政策 of Spain with regard to all its 植民地s, except Fernambuco and Marannon, and with regard to these it has lately 可決する・採択するd a still worse.

Other nations leave the 貿易（する） of their 植民地s 解放する／自由な to all their 支配するs who may carry it on from all the different ports of the mother country, and who have occasion for no other licence than the ありふれた despatches of the custom-house. In this 事例／患者 the number and 分散させるd 状況／情勢 of the different 仲買人s （判決などを）下すs it impossible for them to enter into any general combination, and their 競争 is 十分な to 妨げる them from making very exorbitant 利益（をあげる）s. Under so 自由主義の a 政策 the 植民地s are enabled both to sell their own produce and to buy the goods of Europe at a reasonable price. But since the 解散 of the Plymouth Company, when our 植民地s were but in their 幼少／幼藍期, this has always been the 政策 of England. It has 一般に, too, been that of フラン, and has been uniformly so since the 解散 of what, in England, is 一般的に called their Mississippi Company. The 利益（をあげる）s of the 貿易（する）, therefore, which フラン and England carry on with their 植民地s, though no 疑問 somewhat higher than if the 競争 was 解放する／自由な to all other nations, are, however, by no means exorbitant; and the price of European goods accordingly is not extravagantly high in the greater part of the 植民地s of either of those nations.

In the exportation of their own 黒字／過剰 produce too, it is only with regard to 確かな 商品／必需品s that the 植民地s of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain are 限定するd to the market of the mother country. These 商品／必需品s having been enumerated in the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海 and in some other その後の 行為／法令／行動するs, have upon that account been called enumerated 商品／必需品s. The 残り／休憩（する） are called 非，不，無-enumerated, and may be 輸出（する）d 直接／まっすぐに to other countries 供給するd it is in British or 農園 ships, of which the owners and three-fourths of the 水夫s are British 支配するs.

の中で the 非，不，無-enumerated 商品／必需品s are some of the most important 生産／産物s of America and the West Indies; 穀物 of all sorts, 板材, salt 準備／条項s, fish, sugar and rum.

穀物 is 自然に the first and 主要な／長／主犯 反対する of the culture of all new 植民地s. By 許すing them a very 広範囲にわたる market for it, the 法律 encourages them to 延長する this culture much beyond the 消費 of a thinly 住むd country, and thus to 供給する beforehand an ample subsistence for a continually 増加するing 全住民.

In a country やめる covered with 支持を得ようと努めるd, where 木材／素質 その結果 is of little or no value, the expense of （疑いを）晴らすing the ground is the 主要な／長／主犯 障害 to 改良. By 許すing the 植民地s a very 広範囲にわたる market for their 板材, the 法律 endeavours to 容易にする 改良 by raising the price of a 商品／必需品 which would さもなければ be of little value, and その為に enabling them to make some 利益（をあげる） of what would さもなければ be a mere expense.

In a country neither half-peopled nor half-cultivated, cattle 自然に multiply beyond the 消費 of the inhabitants, and are often upon that account of little or no value. But it is necessary, it has already been shown, that the price of cattle should 耐える a 確かな 割合 to that of corn before the greater part of the lands of any country can be 改善するd. By 許すing to American cattle, in all 形態／調整s, dead or alive, a very 広範囲にわたる market, the 法律 努力するs to raise the value of a 商品／必需品 of which the high price is so very 必須の to 改良. The good 影響s of this liberty, however, must be somewhat 減らすd by the 4th of George III, c. 15, which puts hides and 肌s の中で the enumerated 商品／必需品s, and その為に tends to 減ずる the value of American cattle.

To 増加する the shipping and 海軍の 力／強力にする of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, by the 拡張 of the 漁業s of our 植民地s, is an 反対する which the 立法機関 seems to have had almost 絶えず in 見解（をとる）. Those 漁業s, upon this account, have had all the 激励 which freedom can give them, and they have 繁栄するd accordingly. The New England 漁業 in particular was, before the late 騒動s, one of the most important, perhaps, in the world. The 鯨-漁業 which, notwithstanding an extravagant bounty, is in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain carried on to so little 目的 that in the opinion of many people (which I do not, however, pretend to 令状) the whole produce does not much 越える the value of the bounties which are 毎年 paid for it, is in New England carried on without any bounty to a very 広大な／多数の／重要な extent. Fish is one of the 主要な／長／主犯 articles with which the North Americans 貿易（する） to Spain, Portugal, and the Mediterranean.

Sugar was 初めは an enumerated 商品／必需品 which could be 輸出（する）d only to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. But in 1731, upon a 代表 of the sugar-planters, its exportation was permitted to all parts of the world. The 制限s, however, with which this liberty was 認めるd, joined to the high price of sugar in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, have （判決などを）下すd it, in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段, ineffectual. 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain and her 植民地s still continue to be almost the 単独の market for all the sugar produced in the British 農園s. Their 消費 増加するs so 急速な／放蕩な that, though in consequence of the 増加するing 改良 of Jamaica, 同様に as of the Ceded Islands, the 輸入 of sugar has 増加するd very 大いに within these twenty years, the exportation to foreign countries is said to be not much greater than before.

Rum is a very important article in the 貿易（する） which the Americans carry on to the coast of Africa, from which they bring 支援する negro slaves in return.

If the whole 黒字／過剰 produce of America in 穀物 of all sorts, in salt 準備／条項s and in fish, had been put into the enumeration, and その為に 軍隊d into the market of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, it would have 干渉するd too much with the produce of the 産業 of our own people. It was probably not so much from any regard to the 利益／興味 of America as from a jealousy of this 干渉，妨害 that those important 商品／必需品s have not only been kept out of the enumeration, but that the 輸入 into 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain of all 穀物, except rice, and of salt 準備／条項s, has, in the ordinary 明言する／公表する of the 法律, been 禁じるd.

The 非，不，無-enumerated 商品／必需品s could 初めは be 輸出（する）d to all parts of the world. 板材 and rice, having been once put into the enumeration, when they were afterwards taken out of it, were 限定するd, as to the European market, to the countries that 嘘（をつく） south of Cape Finisterre. By the 6th of George III, c. 52, all 非，不，無-enumerated 商品／必需品s were 支配するd to the like 制限. The parts of Europe which 嘘（をつく） south of Cape Finisterre are not 製造業の countries, and we were いっそう少なく jealous of the 植民地 ships carrying home from them any 製造（する）s which could 干渉する with our own.

The enumerated 商品／必需品s are of two sorts: first, such as are either the peculiar produce of America, or as cannot be produced, or at least are not produced, in the mother country. Of this 肉親，親類d are molasses, coffee, cocoa-nuts, タバコ, pimento, ginger, whalefins, raw silk, cotton-wool, beaver, and other peltry of America, indigo, fustic, and other dyeing 支持を得ようと努めるd; secondly, such as are not the peculiar produce of America, but which are and may be produced in the mother country, though not in such 量s as to 供給（する） the greater part of her 需要・要求する, which is principally 供給（する）d from foreign countries. Of this 肉親，親類d are all 海軍の 蓄える／店s, masts, yards, and bowsprits, tar, pitch, and turpentine, pig and 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業 アイロンをかける, 巡査 鉱石, hides and 肌s, マリファナ and pearl ashes. The largest 輸入 of 商品／必需品s of the first 肉親，親類d could not discourage the growth or 干渉する with the sale of any part of the produce of the mother country. By 限定するing them to the home market, our merchants, it was 推定する／予想するd, would not only be enabled to buy them cheaper in the 農園s, and その結果 to sell them with a better 利益（をあげる） at home, but to 設立する between the 農園s and foreign countries an advantageous carrying 貿易（する）, of which 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain was やむを得ず to be the centre or emporium, as the European country into which those 商品／必需品s were first to be 輸入するd. The 輸入 of 商品／必需品s of the second 肉親，親類d might be so managed too, it was supposed, as to 干渉する, not with the sale of those of the same 肉親，親類d which were produced at home, but with that of those which were 輸入するd from foreign countries; because, by means of proper 義務s, they might be （判決などを）下すd always somewhat dearer than the former, and yet a good 取引，協定 cheaper than the latter. By 限定するing such 商品／必需品s to the home market, therefore, it was 提案するd to discourage the produce, not of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, but of some foreign countries with which the balance of 貿易（する） was believed to be unfavourable to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain.

The 禁止 of 輸出（する）ing from the 植民地s, to any other country but 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, masts, yards, and bowsprits, tar, pitch, and turpentine, 自然に tended to lower the price of 木材／素質 in the 植民地s, and その結果 to 増加する the expense of （疑いを）晴らすing their lands, the 主要な／長／主犯 障害 to their 改良. But about the beginning of the 現在の century, in 1703, the pitch and tar company of Sweden endeavoured to raise the price of their 商品／必需品s to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, by 禁じるing their exportation, except in their own ships, at their own price, and in such 量s as they thought proper. ーするために 中和する／阻止する this 著名な piece of 商業の 政策, and to （判決などを）下す herself as much as possible 独立した・無所属, not only of Sweden, but of all the other northern 力／強力にするs, 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain gave a bounty upon the 輸入 of 海軍の 蓄える／店s from America, and the 影響 of this bounty was to raise the price of 木材／素質 in America much more than the confinement to the home market could lower it; and as both 規則s were 制定するd at the same time, their 共同の 影響 was rather to encourage than to discourage the （疑いを）晴らすing of land in America.

Though pig and 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業 アイロンをかける too have been put の中で the enumerated 商品／必需品s, yet as, when 輸入するd from America, they were 免除されたd from かなりの 義務s to which they are 支配する when 輸入するd from any other country, the one part of the 規則 与える／捧げるs more to encourage the erection of furnaces in America than the other to discourage it. There is no 製造（する） which occasions so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 消費 of 支持を得ようと努めるd as a furnace, or which can 与える／捧げる so much to the （疑いを）晴らすing of a country overgrown with it.

The 傾向 of some of these 規則s to raise the value of 木材／素質 in America, and その為に to 容易にする the （疑いを）晴らすing of the land, was neither, perhaps, ーするつもりであるd nor understood by the 立法機関. Though their 有益な 影響s, however, have been in this 尊敬（する）・点 偶発の, they have not upon that account been いっそう少なく real.

The most perfect freedom of 貿易（する） is permitted between the British 植民地s of America and the West Indies, both in the enumerated and in the 非，不，無-enumerated 商品／必需品s. Those 植民地s are now become so populous and 栄えるing that each of them finds in some of the others a 広大な／多数の／重要な and 広範囲にわたる market for every part of its produce. All of them taken together, they make a 広大な／多数の／重要な 内部の market for the produce of one another.

The liberality of England, however, に向かって the 貿易（する） of her 植民地s has been 限定するd 主として to what 関心s the market for their produce, either in its rude 明言する／公表する, or in what may be called the very first 行う／開催する／段階 of 製造（する）. The more 前進するd or more 精製するd 製造（する）s even of the 植民地 produce, the merchants and 製造業者s of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain choose to reserve to themselves, and have 勝つ／広く一帯に広がるd upon the 立法機関 to 妨げる their 設立 in the 植民地s, いつかs by high 義務s, and いつかs by 絶対の 禁止s.

While, for example, Muskovado sugars from the British 農園s 支払う／賃金 upon 輸入 only 6s. 4d. the hundredweight; white sugars 支払う／賃金 L1 1s. 1d.; and 精製するd, either 二塁打 or 選び出す／独身, in loaves L4 2s. 5 8/20d. When those high 義務s were 課すd, 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain was the 単独の, and she still continues to be the 主要な／長／主犯 market to which the sugars of the British 植民地s could be 輸出（する）d. They 量d, therefore, to a 禁止, at first of claying or 精製するing sugar for any foreign market, and at 現在の of claying or 精製するing it for the market, which takes off, perhaps, more than nine-tenths of the whole produce. The 製造（する） of claying or 精製するing sugar accordingly, though it has 繁栄するd in all the sugar 植民地s of フラン, has been little cultivated in any of those of England except for the market of the 植民地s themselves. While Grenada was in the 手渡すs of the French there was a 精油所 of sugar, by claying at least, upon almost every 農園. Since it fell into those of the English, almost all 作品 of this 肉親，親類d have been given tip, and there are at 現在の, October 1773, I am 保証するd not above two or three remaining in the island. At 現在の, however, by an indulgence of the custom-house, clayed or 精製するd sugar, if 減ずるd from loaves into 砕く, is 一般的に 輸入するd as Muskovado.

While 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain encourages in America the 製造（する）s of pig and 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業 アイロンをかける, by 免除されたing them from 義務s to which the like 商品／必需品s are 支配する when 輸入するd from any other country, she 課すs an 絶対の 禁止 upon the erection of steel furnaces and slitmills in any of her American 農園s. She will not 苦しむ her colonists to work in those more 精製するd 製造（する）s even for their own 消費; but 主張するs upon their 購入（する）ing of her merchants and 製造業者s all goods of this 肉親，親類d which they have occasion for.

She 禁じるs the exportation from one 州 to another by water, and even the carriage by land upon horseback or in a cart, of hats, of wools and woollen goods, of the produce of America; a 規則 which effectually 妨げるs the 設立 of any 製造（する） of such 商品／必需品s for distant sale, and 限定するs the 産業 of her colonists in this way to such coarse and 世帯 製造（する）s as a 私的な family 一般的に makes for its own use or for that of some of its 隣人s in the same 州.

To 禁じる a 広大な／多数の／重要な people, however, from making all that they can of every part of their own produce, or from 雇うing their 在庫／株 and 産業 in the way that they 裁判官 most advantageous to themselves, is a manifest 違反 of the most sacred 権利s of mankind. 不正な, however, as such 禁止s may be, they have not hitherto been very hurtful to the 植民地s. Land is still so cheap, and, その結果, 労働 so dear の中で them, that they can 輸入する from the mother country almost all the more 精製するd or more 前進するd 製造（する）s cheaper than they could make for themselves. Though they had not, therefore, been 禁じるd from 設立するing such 製造（する）s, yet in their 現在の 明言する／公表する of 改良 a regard to their own 利益／興味 would, probably, have 妨げるd them from doing so. In their 現在の 明言する／公表する of 改良 those 禁止s, perhaps, without cramping their 産業, or 抑制するing it from any 雇用 to which it would have gone of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える, are only impertinent badges of slavery 課すd upon them, without any 十分な 推論する／理由, by the groundless jealousy of the merchants and 製造業者s of the mother country. In a more 前進するd 明言する／公表する they might be really oppressive and insupportable.

広大な／多数の／重要な Britain too, as she 限定するs to her own market some of the most important 生産／産物s of the 植民地s, so in 補償（金） she gives to some of them an advantage in that market, いつかs by 課すing higher 義務s upon the like 生産／産物s when 輸入するd from other countries, and いつかs by giving bounties upon their 輸入 from the 植民地s. In the first way she gives an advantage in the home market to the sugar, タバコ, and アイロンをかける of her own 植民地s, and in the second to their raw silk, to their hemp and flax, to their indigo, to their 海軍の 蓄える／店s, and to their building 木材／素質. This second way of encouraging the 植民地 produce by bounties upon 輸入, is, so far as I have been able to learn, peculiar to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. The first is not. Portugal does not content herself with 課すing higher 義務s upon the 輸入 of タバコ from any other country, but 禁じるs it under the severest 刑罰，罰則s.

With regard to the 輸入 of goods from Europe, England has likewise dealt more liberally with her 植民地s than any other nation.

広大な／多数の／重要な Britain 許すs a part, almost always the half, 一般に a larger 部分, and いつかs the whole of the 義務 which is paid upon the 輸入 of foreign goods, to be drawn 支援する upon their exportation to any foreign country. No 独立した・無所属 foreign country, it was 平易な to 予知する, would receive them if they （機の）カム to it 負担d with the 激しい 義務s to which almost all foreign goods are 支配するd on their 輸入 into 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. Unless, therefore, some part of those 義務s was drawn 支援する upon exportation, there was an end of the carrying 貿易（する）; a 貿易（する） so much favoured by the 商業の system.

Our 植民地s, however, are by no means 独立した・無所属 foreign countries; and 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain having assumed to herself the 排除的 権利 of 供給（する）ing them with all goods from Europe, might have 軍隊d them (in the same manner as other countries have done their 植民地s) to receive such goods, 負担d with all the same 義務s which they paid in the mother country. But, on the contrary, till 1763, the same drawbacks were paid upon the exportation of the greater part of foreign goods to our 植民地s as to any 独立した・無所属 foreign country. In 1763, indeed, by the 4th of George III, c. 15, this indulgence was a good 取引，協定 abated, and it was 制定するd, "That no part of the 義務 called the Old 補助金 should be drawn 支援する for any goods of the growth, 生産／産物, or 製造（する） of Europe or the East Indies, which should be 輸出（する）d from this kingdom to any British 植民地 or 農園 in America; ワインs, white calicoes and muslins excepted." Before this 法律, many different sorts of foreign goods might have been bought cheaper in the 農園s than in the mother country; and some may still.

Of the greater part of the 規則s 関心ing the 植民地 貿易（する）, the merchants who carry it on, it must be 観察するd, have been the 主要な／長／主犯 助言者s. We must not wonder, therefore, if, in the greater part of them, their 利益／興味 has been more considered than either that of the 植民地s or that of the mother country. In their 排除的 特権 of 供給（する）ing the 植民地s with all the goods which they 手配中の，お尋ね者 from Europe, and of 購入（する）ing all such parts of their 黒字／過剰 produce as could not 干渉する with any of the 貿易（する）s which they themselves carried on at home, the 利益／興味 of the 植民地s was sacrificed to the 利益／興味 of those merchants. In 許すing the same drawbacks upon the re-exportation of the greater part of European and East India goods to the 植民地s as upon their re-exportation to any 独立した・無所属 country, the 利益／興味 of the mother country was sacrificed to it, even によれば the 商業の ideas of that 利益／興味. It was for the 利益／興味 of the merchants to 支払う／賃金 as little as possible for the foreign which they sent to the 植民地s, and, その結果, to get 支援する as much as possible of the 義務s which they 前進するd upon their 輸入 into 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. They might その為に be enabled to sell in the 植民地s either the same 量 of goods with a greater 利益（をあげる）, or a greater 量 with the same 利益（をあげる）, and, その結果, to 伸び（る） something either in the one way or the other. It was likewise for the 利益／興味 of the 植民地s to get all such goods as cheap and in as 広大な／多数の／重要な 豊富 as possible. But this might not always be for the 利益／興味 of the mother country. She might frequently 苦しむ both in her 歳入, by giving 支援する a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the 義務s which had been paid upon the 輸入 of such goods; and in her 製造（する）s, by 存在 undersold in the 植民地 market, in consequence of the 平易な 条件 upon which foreign 製造（する）s could be carried thither by means of those drawbacks. The 進歩 of the linen 製造（する） of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, it is 一般的に said, has been a good 取引，協定 retard ed by the drawbacks upon the re-exportation of German linen to the American 植民地s.

But though the 政策 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain with regard to the 貿易（する） of her 植民地s has been dictated by the same 商業の spirit as that of other nations, it has, however, upon the whole, been いっそう少なく illiberal and oppressive than that of any of them.

In everything, except their foreign 貿易（する）, the liberty of the English colonists to manage their own 事件／事情／状勢s their own way is 完全にする. It is in every 尊敬（する）・点 equal to that of their fellow-国民s at home, and is 安全な・保証するd in the same manner, by an 議会 of the 代表者／国会議員s of the people, who （人命などを）奪う，主張する the 単独の 権利 of 課すing 税金s for the support of the 植民地 政府. The 当局 of this 議会 overawes the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする, and neither the meanest nor the most obnoxious colonist, as long as he obeys the 法律, has anything to 恐れる from the 憤慨, either of the 知事 or of any other civil or 軍の officer in the 州. The 植民地 議会s though, like the House of ありふれたs in England, are not always a very equal 代表 of the people, yet they approach more nearly to that character; and as the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする either has not the means to corrupt them, or, on account of the support which it receives from the mother country, is not under the necessity of doing so, they are perhaps in general more 影響（力）d by the inclinations of their 選挙権を持つ／選挙人s. The 会議s which, in the 植民地 立法機関s, correspond to the House of Lords in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, are not composed of an hereditary nobility. In some of the 植民地s, as in three of the 政府s of New England, those 会議s are not 任命するd by the king, but chosen by the 代表者／国会議員s of the people. In 非，不，無 of the English 植民地s is there any hereditary nobility. In all of them, indeed, as in all other 解放する／自由な countries, the 子孫 of an old 植民地 family is more 尊敬（する）・点d than an upstart of equal 長所 and fortune; but he is only more 尊敬（する）・点d, and he has no 特権s by which he can be troublesome to his 隣人s. Before the 開始／学位授与式 of the 現在の 騒動s, the 植民地 議会s had not only the 法律を制定する but a part of the (n)役員／(a)執行力のある 力／強力にする. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, they elected the 知事. In the other 植民地s they 任命するd the 歳入 officers who collected the 税金s 課すd by those 各々の assem blies, to whom those officers were すぐに responsible. There is more equality, therefore, の中で the English colonists than の中で the inhabitants of the mother country. Their manners are more 共和国の／共和党の, and their 政府s, those of three of the 州s of New England in particular, have hitherto been more 共和国の／共和党の too.

The 絶対の 政府s of Spain, Portugal, and フラン, on the contrary, take place in their 植民地s; and the discretionary 力／強力にするs which such 政府s 一般的に 委任する／代表 to all their inferior officers are, on account of the 広大な／多数の／重要な distance, 自然に 演習d there with more than ordinary 暴力／激しさ. Under all 絶対の 政府s there is more liberty in the 資本／首都 than in any other part of the country. The 君主 himself can never have either 利益／興味 or inclination to pervert the order of 司法（官）, or to 抑圧する the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people. In the 資本／首都 his presence overawes more or いっそう少なく all his inferior officers, who in the remoter 州s, from whence the （民事の）告訴s of the people are いっそう少なく likely to reach him, can 演習 their tyranny with much more safety. But the European 植民地s in America are more remote than the most distant 州s of the greatest empires which had ever been known before. The 政府 of the English 植民地s is perhaps the only one which, since the world began, could give perfect 安全 to the inhabitants of so very distant a 州. The 行政 of the French 植民地s, however, has always been 行為／行うd with more gentleness and moderation than that of the Spanish and Portugese. This 優越 of 行為／行う is suitable both to the character of the French nation, and to what forms the character of every nation, the nature of their 政府, which though 独断的な and violent in comparison with that of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, is 合法的な and 解放する／自由な in comparison with those of Spain and Portugal.

It is in the 進歩 of the North American 植民地s, however, that the 優越 of the English 政策 主として appears. The 進歩 of the sugar 植民地s of フラン has been at least equal, perhaps superior, to that of the greater part of those of England, and yet the sugar 植民地s of England enjoy a 解放する／自由な 政府 nearly of the same 肉親，親類d with that which takes place in her 植民地s of North America. But the sugar 植民地s of フラン are not discouraged, like those of England, from 精製するing their own sugar; and, what is of still greater importance, the genius of their 政府 自然に introduces a better 管理／経営 of their negro slaves.

In all European 植民地s the culture of the sugar-茎 is carried on by negro slaves. The 憲法 of those who have been born in the temperate 気候 of Europe could not, it is supposed, support the 労働 of digging the ground under the 燃やすing sun of the West Indies; and the culture of the sugarcane, as it is managed at 現在の, is all 手渡す 労働, though, in the opinion of many, the 演習 plough might be introduced into it with 広大な／多数の／重要な advantage. But, as the 利益（をあげる） and success of the cultivation which is carried on by means of cattle, depend very much upon the good 管理／経営 of those cattle, so the 利益（をあげる） and success of that which is carried on by slaves must depend 平等に upon the good 管理／経営 of those slaves; and in the good 管理／経営 of their slaves the French planters, I think it is 一般に 許すd, are superior to the English. The 法律, so far as it gives some weak 保護 to the slave against the 暴力／激しさ of his master, is likely to be better 遂行する／発効させるd in a 植民地 where the 政府 is in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 独断的な than in one where it is altogether 解放する／自由な. In every country where the unfortunate 法律 of slavery is 設立するd, the 治安判事, when he 保護するs the slave, intermeddles in some 手段 in the 管理／経営 of the 私的な 所有物／資産／財産 of the master; and, in a 解放する／自由な country, where the master is perhaps either a member of the 植民地 議会, or an elector of such a member, he dare not do this but with the greatest 警告を与える and circumspection. The 尊敬（する）・点 which he is 強いるd to 支払う／賃金 to the master （判決などを）下すs it more difficult for him to 保護する the slave. But in a country where the 政府 is in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 独断的な, where it is usual for the 治安判事 to intermeddle even in the 管理／経営 of the 私的な 所有物／資産／財産 of individuals, and to send them, perhaps, a lettre de cachet if they do not manage it によれば his liking, it is much easier for him to give some 保護 to the slave; and ありふれた humanity 自然に 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせるs him to do so. The 保護 of the 治安判事 （判決などを）下すs the slave いっそう少なく contemptible in the 注目する，もくろむs of his master, who is その為に induced to consider him with more regard, and to 扱う／治療する him with more gentleness. Gentle usage （判決などを）下すs the slave not only more faithful, but more intelligent, and therefore, upon a 二塁打 account, more useful. He approaches more to the 条件 of a 解放する／自由な servant, and may 所有する some degree of 正直さ and attachment to his master's 利益／興味, virtues which frequently belong to 解放する／自由な servants, but which never can belong to a slave who is 扱う／治療するd as slaves 一般的に are in countries where the master is perfectly 解放する／自由な and 安全な・保証する.

That the 条件 of a slave is better under an 独断的な than under a 解放する／自由な 政府 is, I believe, supported by the history of all ages and nations. In the Roman history, the first time we read of the 治安判事 interposing to 保護する the slave from the 暴力／激しさ of his master is under the emperors. When Vedius Pollio, in the presence of Augustus, ordered one of his slaves, who had committed a slight fault, to be 削減（する） into pieces and thrown into his fish pond ーするために 料金d his fishes, the emperor 命令（する）d him, with indignation, to emancipate すぐに, not only that slave, but all the others that belonged to him. Under the 共和国 no 治安判事 could have had 当局 enough to 保護する the slave, much いっそう少なく to punish the master.

The 在庫／株, it is to be 観察するd, which has 改善するd the sugar 植民地s of フラン, 特に the 広大な／多数の／重要な 植民地 of St. Domingo, has been raised almost 完全に from the 漸進的な 改良 and cultivation of those 植民地s. It has been almost altogether the produce of the 国／地域 and of the 産業 of the 植民地s, or, what comes to the same thing, the price of that produce 徐々に 蓄積するd by good 管理／経営, and 雇うd in raising a still greater produce. But the 在庫／株 which has 改善するd and cultivated the sugar 植民地s of England has, a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of it, been sent out from England, and has by no means been altogether the produce of the 国／地域 and 産業 of the colonists. The 繁栄 of the English sugar 植民地s has been, in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段, 借りがあるing to the 広大な／多数の／重要な riches of England, of which a part has 洪水d, if one may say so, upon those 植民地s. But the 繁栄 of the sugar 植民地s of フラン has been 完全に 借りがあるing to the good 行為／行う of the colonists, which must therefore have had some 優越 over that of the English; and this 優越 has been 発言／述べるd in nothing so much as in the good 管理／経営 of their slaves.

Such have been the general 輪郭（を描く）s of the 政策 of the different European nations with regard to their 植民地s.

The 政策 of Europe, therefore, has very little to 誇る of, either in the 初めの 設立 or, so far as 関心s their 内部の 政府, in the その後の 繁栄 of the 植民地s of America.

Folly and 不正 seem to have been the 原則s which 統括するd over and directed the first 事業／計画（する） of 設立するing those 植民地s; the folly of 追跡（する）ing after gold and silver 地雷s, and the 不正 of coveting the 所有／入手 of a country whose 害のない natives, far from having ever 負傷させるd the people of Europe, had received the first adventurers with every 示す of 親切 and 歓待.

The adventurers, indeed, who formed some of the later 設立s, joined to the chimerical 事業／計画（する） of finding gold and silver 地雷s other 動機s more reasonable and more laudable; but even these 動機s do very little honour to the 政策 of Europe.

The English Puritans, 抑制するd at home, fled for freedom to America, and 設立するd there the four 政府s of New England. The English カトリック教徒s, 扱う／治療するd with much greater 不正, 設立するd that of Maryland; the Quakers, that of Pennsylvania. The Portuguese Jews, 迫害するd by the Inquisition, stripped of their fortunes, and banished to Brazil, introduced by their example some sort of order and 産業 の中で the 輸送（する）d felons and strumpets by whom that 植民地 was 初めは peopled, and taught them the culture of the sugar-茎. Upon all these different occasions it was not the 知恵 and 政策, but the disorder and 不正 of the European 政府s which peopled and cultivated America.

In effectuating some of the most important of these 設立s, the different 政府s of Europe had as little 長所 as in 事業／計画（する）ing them. The conquest of Mexico was the 事業／計画（する）, not of the 会議 of Spain, but of a 知事 of Cuba; and it was effectuated by the spirit of the bold adventurer to whom it was ゆだねるd, in spite of everything which that 知事, who soon repented of having 信用d such a person, could do to 妨害する it. The 征服者／勝利者s of Chili and Peru, and of almost all the other Spanish 解決／入植地s upon the continent of America, carried out with them no other public 激励, but a general 許可 to make 解決／入植地s and conquests in the 指名する of the king of Spain. Those adventures were all at the 私的な 危険 and expense of the adventurers. The 政府 of Spain 与える／捧げるd 不十分な anything to any of them. That of England 与える／捧げるd as little に向かって effectuating the 設立 of some of its most important 植民地s in North America.

When those 設立s were effectuated, and had become so かなりの as to attract the attention of the mother country, the first 規則s which she made with regard to them had always in 見解（をとる） to 安全な・保証する to herself the monopoly of their 商業; to 限定する their market, and to 大きくする her own at their expense, and, その結果, rather to damp and discourage than to quicken and 今後 the course of their 繁栄. In the different ways in which this monopoly has been 演習d consists one of the most 必須の differences in the 政策 of the different European nations with regard to their 植民地s. The best of them all, that of England, is only somewhat いっそう少なく illiberal and oppressive than that of any of the 残り／休憩（する）.

In what way, therefore, has the 政策 of Europe 与える／捧げるd either to the first 設立, or to the 現在の grandeur of the 植民地s of America? In one way, and in one way only, it has 与える／捧げるd a good 取引，協定. Magna virum Mater! It bred and formed the men who were 有能な of 達成するing such 広大な／多数の／重要な 活動／戦闘s, and of laying the 創立／基礎 of so 広大な／多数の／重要な an empire; and there is no other ４半期/4分の1 of the world of which the 政策 is 有能な of forming, or has ever 現実に and in fact formed such men. The 植民地s 借りがある to the 政策 of Europe the education and 広大な／多数の／重要な 見解（をとる）s of their active and 企業ing 創立者s; and some of the greatest and most important of them, so far as 関心s their 内部の 政府, 借りがある to it 不十分な anything else.

Part 3: Of the Advantages which Europe has derived
from the 発見 of America,
and from that of a Passage to the East Indies
by the Cape of Good Hope

What are those which Europe has derived from the 発見 and 植民地化 of America?

Those advantages may be divided, first, into the general advantages which Europe, considered as one 広大な／多数の／重要な country, has derived from those 広大な／多数の／重要な events; and, secondly, into the particular advantages which each colonizing country has derived from the 植民地s which 特に belong to it, in consequence of the 当局 or dominion which it 演習s over them.

The general advantages which Europe, considered as one 広大な／多数の／重要な country, has derived from the 発見 and colonisation of America, consist, first, in the 増加する of its enjoyments; and, secondly, in the augmentation of its 産業.

The 黒字／過剰 produce of America, 輸入するd into Europe, furnishes the inhabitants of this 広大な／多数の／重要な continent with a variety of 商品／必需品s which they could not さもなければ have 所有するd; some for conveniency and use, some for 楽しみ, and some for ornament, and その為に 与える／捧げるs to 増加する their enjoyments.

The 発見 and 植民地化 of America, it will readily be 許すd, have 与える／捧げるd to augment the 産業, first, of all the countries which 貿易（する） to it 直接／まっすぐに, such as Spain, Portugal, フラン, and England; and, secondly, of all those which, without 貿易（する）ing to it 直接／まっすぐに, send, through the medium of other countries, goods to it of their own produce; such as Austrian Flanders, and some 州s of Germany, which, through the medium of the countries before について言及するd, send to it a かなりの 量 of linen and other goods. All such countries have evidently 伸び（る）d a more 広範囲にわたる market for their 黒字／過剰 produce, and must その結果 have been encouraged to 増加する its 量.

But that those 広大な／多数の／重要な events should likewise have 与える／捧げるd to encourage the 産業 of countries, such as Hungary and Poland, which may never, perhaps, have sent a 選び出す／独身 商品／必需品 of their own produce to America, is not, perhaps, altogether so evident. That those events have done so, however, cannot be 疑問d. Some part of the produce of America is 消費するd in Hungary and Poland, and there is some 需要・要求する there for the sugar, chocolate, and タバコ of that new ４半期/4分の1 of the world. But those 商品／必需品s must be 購入（する）d with something which is either the produce of the 産業 of Hungary and Poland, or with something which had been 購入（する）d with some part of that produce. Those 商品／必需品s of America are new values, new 同等（の）s, introduced into Hungary and Poland to be 交流d there for the 黒字／過剰 produce of those countries. By 存在 carried thither they create a new and more 広範囲にわたる market for that 黒字／過剰 produce. They raise its value, and その為に 与える／捧げる to encourage its 増加する. Though no part of it may ever be carried to America, it may be carried to other countries which 購入（する） it with a part of their 株 of the 黒字／過剰 produce of America; and it may find a market by means of the 循環／発行部数 of that 貿易（する） which was 初めは put into 動議 by the 黒字／過剰 produce of America.

Those 広大な／多数の／重要な events may even have 与える／捧げるd to 増加する the enjoyments, and to augment the 産業 of countries which not only never sent any 商品／必需品s to America, but never received any from it. Even such countries may have received a greater 豊富 of other 商品／必需品s from countries of which the 黒字／過剰 produce had been augmented by means of the American 貿易（する）. This greater 豊富, as it must やむを得ず have 増加するd their enjoyments, so it must likewise have augmented their 産業. A greater number of new 同等（の）s of some 肉親，親類d or other must have been 現在のd to them to be 交流d for the 黒字／過剰 produce of that 産業. A more 広範囲にわたる market must have been created for that 黒字／過剰 produce so as to raise its value, and その為に encourage its 増加する. The 集まり of 商品／必需品s 毎年 thrown into the 広大な／多数の／重要な circle of European 商業, and by its さまざまな 革命s 毎年 分配するd の中で all the different nations comprehended within it, must have been augmented by the whole 黒字／過剰 produce of America. A greater 株 of this greater 集まり, therefore, is likely to have fallen to each of those nations, to have 増加するd their enjoyments, and augmented their 産業.

The 排除的 貿易（する） of the mother countries tends to 減らす, or, at least, to keep 負かす／撃墜する below what they would さもなければ rise to, both the enjoyments and 産業 of all those nations in general, and of the American 植民地s in particular. It is a dead 負わせる upon the 活動／戦闘 of one of the 広大な／多数の／重要な springs which puts into 動議 a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the 商売／仕事 of mankind. By （判決などを）下すing the 植民地 produce dearer in all other countries, it 少なくなるs its 消費, and その為に cramps the 産業 of the 植民地s, and both the enjoyments and the 産業 of all other countries, which both enjoy いっそう少なく when they 支払う／賃金 more for what they enjoy, and produce いっそう少なく when they get いっそう少なく for what they produce. By （判決などを）下すing the produce of all other countries dearer in the 植民地s, it cramps, in the same manner the 産業 of all other countries, and both the enjoyments and the 産業 of the 植民地s. It is a clog which, for the supposed 利益 of some particular countries, embarrasses the 楽しみs and encumbers the 産業 of all other countries; but of the 植民地s more than of any other. It not only 除外するs, as much as possible, all other countries from one particular market; but it 限定するs, as much as Possible, the 植民地s to one particular market; and the difference is very 広大な／多数の／重要な between 存在 除外するd from one particular market, when all others are open, and 存在 限定するd to one particular market, when all others are shut up. The 黒字／過剰 produce of the 植民地s, however, is the 初めの source of all that 増加する of enjoyments and 産業 which Europe derives from the 発見 and 植民地化 of America; and the 排除的 貿易（する） of the mother countries tends to （判決などを）下す this source much いっそう少なく abundant than it さもなければ would be.

The particular advantages which each colonizing country derives from the 植民地s which 特に belong to it are of two different 肉親，親類d; first, those ありふれた advantages which every empire derives from the 州s 支配する to its dominion; and, secondly, those peculiar advantages which are supposed to result from 州s of so very peculiar a nature as the European 植民地s of America.

The ありふれた advantages which every empire derives from the 州s 支配する to its dominion consist, first, in the 軍の 軍隊 which they furnish for its defence; and, secondly, in the 歳入 which they furnish for the support of its civil 政府. The Roman 結腸s furnished occasionally both the one and the other. The Greek 植民地s, いつかs, furnished a 軍の 軍隊, but seldom any 歳入. They seldom 定評のある themselves 支配する to the dominion of the mother city. They were 一般に her 同盟（する）s in war, but very seldom her 支配するs in peace.

The European 植民地s of America have never yet furnished any 軍の 軍隊 for the defence of the mother country. Their 軍の 軍隊 has never yet been 十分な for their own defence; and in the different wars in which the mother countries have been engaged, the defence of their 植民地s has 一般に occasioned a very かなりの distraction of the 軍の 軍隊 of those countries. In this 尊敬（する）・点, therefore, all the European 植民地s have, without exception, been a 原因（となる） rather of 証拠不十分 than of strength to their 各々の mother countries.

The 植民地s of Spain and Portugal only have 与える／捧げるd any 歳入 に向かって the defence of the mother country, or the support of her civil 政府. The 税金s which have been 徴収するd upon those of other European nations, upon those of England in particular, have seldom been equal to the expense laid out upon them in time of peace, and never 十分な to defray that which they occasioned in time of war. Such 植民地s, therefore, have been a source of expense and not of 歳入 to their 各々の mother countries.

The advantages of such 植民地s to their 各々の mother countries consist altogether in those peculiar advantages which are supposed to result from 州s of so very peculiar a nature as the European 植民地s of America; and the 排除的 貿易（する）, it is 定評のある, is the 単独の source of all those peculiar advantages.

In consequence of this 排除的 貿易（する）, all that part of the 黒字／過剰 produce of the English 植民地s, for example, which consists in what are called enumerated 商品／必需品s, can be sent to no other country but England. Other countries must afterwards buy it of her. It must be cheaper therefore in England than it can be in any other country, and must 与える／捧げる more to 増加する the enjoyments of England than those of any other country. It must likewise 与える／捧げる more to encourage her 産業. For all those parts of her own 黒字／過剰 produce which England 交流s for those enumerated 商品／必需品s, she must get a better price than any other countries can get for the like parts of theirs, when they 交流 them for the same 商品／必需品s. The 製造業者s of England, for example, will 購入（する） a greater 量 of the sugar and タバコ of her own 植民地s than the like 製造（する）s of other countries can 購入（する） of that sugar and タバコ. So far, therefore, as the 製造（する）s of England and those of other countries are both to be 交流d for the sugar and タバコ of the English 植民地s, this 優越 of price gives an 激励 to the former beyond what the latter can in these circumstances enjoy. The 排除的 貿易（する） of the 植民地s, therefore, as it 減らすs, or at least keeps 負かす／撃墜する below what they would さもなければ rise to, both the enjoyments and the 産業 of the countries which do not 所有する it; so it gives an evident advantage to the countries which do 所有する it over those other countries.

This advantage, however, will perhaps be 設立する to be rather what may be called a 親族 than an 絶対の advantage; and to give a 優越 to the country which enjoys it rather by depressing the 産業 and produce of other countries than by raising those of that particular country above what they would 自然に rise to in the 事例／患者 of a 自由貿易.

The タバコ of Maryland and Virginia, for example, by means of the monopoly which England enjoys of it, certainly comes cheaper to England than it can do to フラン, to whom England 一般的に sells a かなりの part of it. But had フラン, and all other European countries been, at all times, 許すd a 自由貿易 to Maryland and Virginia, the タバコ of those 植民地s might, by this time, have come cheaper than it 現実に does, not only to all those other countries, but likewise to England. The produce of タバコ, in consequence of a market so much more 広範囲にわたる than any which it has hitherto enjoyed, might, and probably would, by this time, have been so much 増加するd as to 減ずる the 利益（をあげる）s of a タバコ 農園 to their natural level with those of a corn 農園, which, it is supposed, they are still somewhat above. The price of タバコ might, and probably would, by this time, have fallen somewhat lower than it is at 現在の. An equal 量 of the 商品／必需品s either of England or of those other countries might have 購入（する）d in Maryland and Virginia a greater 量 of タバコ than it can do at 現在の, and その結果 have been sold there for so much a better price. So far as that 少しのd, therefore, can, by its cheapness and 豊富, 増加する the enjoyments or augment the 産業 either of England or of any other country, it would, probably, in the 事例／患者 of a 自由貿易, have produced both these 影響s in somewhat a greater degree than it can do at 現在の. England, indeed, would not in this 事例／患者 have had any advantage over other countries. She might have bought the タバコ of her 植民地s somewhat cheaper, and その結果 have sold some of her own 商品／必需品s somewhat dearer than she 現実に does. But she could neither have bought the one cheaper nor sold the other dearer than any other country might have done. She might, perhaps have 伸び（る）d an 絶対の, but she would certainly have lost a 親族 advantage.

In order, however, to 得る this 親族 advantage in the 植民地 貿易（する）, ーするために 遂行する／発効させる the invidious and malignant 事業／計画（する） of 除外するing as much as possible other nations from any 株 in it, England, there are very probable 推論する／理由s for believing, has not only sacrificed a part of the 絶対の advantage which she, 同様に as every other nation, might have derived from that 貿易（する）, but has 支配するd herself both to an 絶対の and to a 親族 disadvantage in almost every other 支店 of 貿易（する）.

When, by the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海, England assumed to herself the monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する）, the 外資s which had before been 雇うd in it were やむを得ず 孤立した from it. The English 資本／首都, which had before carried on but a part of it, was now to carry on the whole. The 資本／首都 which had before 供給（する）d the 植民地s with but a part of the goods which they 手配中の，お尋ね者 from Europe was now all that was 雇うd to 供給（する） them with the whole. But it could not 供給（する） them with the whole, and the goods with which it did 供給（する） them were やむを得ず sold very dear. The 資本／首都 which had before bought but a part of the 黒字／過剰 produce of the 植民地s, was now all that was 雇うd to buy the whole. But it could not buy the whole at anything 近づく the old price, and, therefore, whatever it did buy it やむを得ず bought very cheap. But in an 雇用 of 資本／首都 in which the merchant sold very dear and bought very cheap, the 利益（をあげる） must have been very 広大な／多数の／重要な, and much above the ordinary level of 利益（をあげる） in other 支店s of 貿易（する）. This 優越 of 利益（をあげる） in the 植民地 貿易（する） could not fail to draw from other 支店s of 貿易（する） a part of the 資本／首都 which had before been 雇うd in them. But this revulsion of 資本／首都, as it must have 徐々に 増加するd the 競争 of 資本／首都s in the 植民地 貿易（する）, so it must have 徐々に 減らすd that 競争 in all those other 支店s of 貿易（する）; as it must have 徐々に lowered the 利益（をあげる）s of the one, so it must have 徐々に raised those of the other, till the 利益（をあげる）s of all （機の）カム to a new level, different from and somewhat higher than that at which they had been before.

This 二塁打 影響 of 製図／抽選 資本／首都 from all other 貿易（する）s, and of raising the 率 of 利益（をあげる） somewhat higher than it さもなければ would have been in all 貿易（する）s, was not only produced by this monopoly upon its first 設立, but has continued to be produced by it ever since.

First, this monopoly has been continually 製図／抽選 資本／首都 from all other 貿易（する）s to be 雇うd in that of the 植民地s.

Though the wealth of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain has 増加するd very much since the 設立 of the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海, it certainly has not 増加するd in the same 割合 as that of the 植民地s. But the foreign 貿易（する） of every country 自然に 増加するs in 割合 to its wealth, its 黒字／過剰 produce in 割合 to its whole produce; and 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain having engrossed to herself almost the whole of what may be called the foreign 貿易（する） of the 植民地s, and her 資本／首都 not having 増加するd in the same 割合 as the extent of that 貿易（する）, she could not carry it on without continually 身を引くing from other 支店s of 貿易（する） some part of the 資本／首都 which had before been 雇うd in them 同様に as 保留するing from them a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 more which would さもなければ have gone to them. Since the 設立 of the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海, accordingly, the 植民地 貿易（する） has been continually 増加するing, while many other 支店s of foreign 貿易（する）, 特に of that to other parts of Europe, have been continually decaying. Our 製造（する）s for foreign sale, instead of 存在 ふさわしい, as before the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海, to the 隣人ing market of Europe, or to the more distant one of the countries which 嘘（をつく） 一連の会議、交渉／完成する the Mediterranean Sea, have, the greater part of them, been 融通するd to the still more distant one of the 植民地s, to the market in which they have the monopoly rather than to that in which they have many competitors. The 原因（となる）s of decay in other 支店s of foreign 貿易（する）, which, by Sir Matthew Decker and other writers, have been sought for in the 超過 and 妥当でない 方式 of 課税, in the high price of 労働, in the 増加する of 高級な, etc., may all be 設立する in the overgrowth of the 植民地 貿易（する）. The 商業の 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, though very 広大な／多数の／重要な, yet not 存在 infinite, and though 大いに 増加するd since the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海, yet not 存在 増加するd in the same 割合 as the 植民地 貿易（する）, that 貿易（する） could not かもしれない be carried on without 身を引くing some part of that 資本／首都 from other 支店s of tr 広告, nor その結果 without some decay of those other 支店s.

England, it must be 観察するd, was a 広大な／多数の／重要な 貿易（する）ing country, her 商業の 資本／首都 was very 広大な／多数の／重要な and likely to become still greater and greater every day, not only before the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海 had 設立するd the monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する）, but before that 貿易（する） was very かなりの. In the Dutch war, during the 政府 of Cromwell, her 海軍 was superior to that of Holland; and in that which broke out in the beginning of the 統治する of Charles II, it was at last equal, perhaps superior, to the 部隊d 海軍s of フラン and Holland. Its 優越, perhaps, would 不十分な appear greater in the 現在の times; at least if the Dutch 海軍 was to 耐える the same 割合 to the Dutch 商業 now which it did then. But this 広大な／多数の／重要な 海軍の 力／強力にする could not, in either of those wars, be 借りがあるing to the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海. During the first of them the 計画（する） of that 行為／法令／行動する had been but just formed; and though before the breaking out of the second it had been fully 制定するd by 合法的な 当局, yet no part of it could have had time to produce any かなりの 影響, and least of all that part which 設立するd the 排除的 貿易（する） to the 植民地s. Both the 植民地s and their 貿易（する） were inconsiderable then in comparison of what they are now. The island of Jamaica was an unwholesome 砂漠, little 住むd, and いっそう少なく cultivated. New York and New Jersey were in the 所有／入手 of the Dutch: the half of St. Christopher's in that of the French. The island of Antigua, the two Carolinas, Pennsylvania, Georgia, and Nova Scotia were not 工場／植物d. Virginia, Maryland, and New England were 工場／植物d; and though they were very 栄えるing 植民地s, yet there was not, perhaps, at that time, either in Europe or America, a 選び出す／独身 person who foresaw or even 嫌疑者，容疑者／疑うd the 早い 進歩 which they have since made in wealth, 全住民, and 改良. The island of Barbadoes, in short, was the only British 植民地 of any consequence of which the 条件 at that time bore any resemblance to what it is at 現在の. The 貿易（する） of the 植民地s, of which England, ev en for some time after the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海, enjoyed but a part (for the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海 was not very 厳密に 遂行する／発効させるd till several years after it was 制定するd), could not at that time be the 原因（となる） of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 貿易（する） of England, nor of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 海軍の 力／強力にする which was supported by that 貿易（する）. The 貿易（する） which at that time supported that 広大な／多数の／重要な 海軍の 力／強力にする was the 貿易（する） of Europe, and of the countries which 嘘（をつく） 一連の会議、交渉／完成する the Mediterranean Sea. But the 株 which 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain at 現在の enjoys of that 貿易（する） could not support any such 広大な／多数の／重要な 海軍の 力／強力にする. Had the growing 貿易（する） of the 植民地s been left 解放する／自由な to all nations, whatever 株 of it might have fallen to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and a very かなりの 株 would probably have fallen to her, must have been all an 新規加入 to this 広大な／多数の／重要な 貿易（する） of which she was before in 所有／入手. In consequence of the monopoly, the 増加する of the 植民地 貿易（する） has not so much occasioned an 新規加入 to the 貿易（する） which 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain had before as a total change in its direction.

Secondly, this monopoly has やむを得ず 与える／捧げるd to keep up the 率 of 利益（をあげる） in all the different 支店s of British 貿易（する） higher than it 自然に would have been had all nations been 許すd a 自由貿易 to the British 植民地s.

The monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する）, as it やむを得ず drew に向かって that 貿易（する） a greater 割合 of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain than what would have gone to it of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える; so by the 追放 of all 外資s it やむを得ず 減ずるd the whole 量 of 資本／首都 雇うd in that 貿易（する） below what it 自然に would have been in the 事例／患者 of a 自由貿易. But, by 少なくなるing the 競争 of 資本／首都s in that 支店 of 貿易（する）, it やむを得ず raised the 率 of 利益（をあげる） in that 支店. By 少なくなるing, too, the 競争 of British 資本／首都s in all other 支店s of 貿易（する）, it やむを得ず raised the 率 of British 利益（をあげる） in all those other 支店s. Whatever may have been, at any particular period, since the 設立 of the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海, the 明言する／公表する or extent of the 商業の 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, the monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する） must, during the continuance of that 明言する／公表する, have raised the ordinary 率 of British 利益（をあげる） higher than it さもなければ would have been both in that and in all the other 支店s of British 貿易（する）. If, since the 設立 of the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海, the ordinary 率 of British 利益（をあげる） has fallen かなり, as it certainly has, it must have fallen still lower, had not the monopoly 設立するd by that 行為／法令／行動する 与える／捧げるd to keep it up.

But whatever raises in any country the ordinary 率 of 利益（をあげる） higher than it さもなければ would be, やむを得ず 支配するs that country both to an 絶対の and to a 親族 disadvantage in every 支店 of 貿易（する） of which she has not the monopoly.

It 支配するs her to an 絶対の disadvantage; because in such 支店s of 貿易（する） her merchants cannot get this greater 利益（をあげる） without selling dearer than they さもなければ would do both the goods of foreign countries which they 輸入する into their own, and the goods of their own country which they 輸出（する） to foreign countries. Their own country must both buy dearer and sell dearer; must both buy いっそう少なく and sell いっそう少なく; must both enjoy いっそう少なく and produce いっそう少なく, than she さもなければ would do.

It 支配するs her to a 親族 disadvantage; because in such 支店s of 貿易（する） it 始める，決めるs other countries which are not 支配する to the same 絶対の disadvantage either more above her or いっそう少なく below her than they さもなければ would be. It enables them both to enjoy more and to produce more in 割合 to what she enjoys and produces. It （判決などを）下すs their 優越 greater or their inferiority いっそう少なく than it さもなければ would be. By raising the price of her produce above what it さもなければ would be, it enables the merchants of other countries to undersell her in foreign markets, and その為に to jostle her out of almost all those 支店s of 貿易（する）, of which she has not the monopoly.

Our merchants frequently complain of the high 給料 of British 労働 as the 原因（となる） of their 製造（する）s 存在 undersold in foreign markets, but they are silent about the high 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株. They complain of the extravagant 伸び（る） of other people, but they say nothing of their own. The high 利益（をあげる）s of British 在庫／株, however, may 与える／捧げる に向かって raising the price of British 製造（する）s in many 事例／患者s as much, and in some perhaps more, than the high 給料 of British 労働.

It is in this manner that the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, one may 正確に，正当に say, has partly been drawn and partly been driven from the greater part of the different 支店s of 貿易（する） of which she has not the monopoly; from the 貿易（する） of Europe in particular, and from that of the countries which 嘘（をつく） 一連の会議、交渉／完成する the Mediterranean Sea.

It has partly been drawn from those 支店s of 貿易（する） by the attraction of superior 利益（をあげる） in the 植民地 貿易（する） in consequence of the continual 増加する of that 貿易（する）, and of the continual insufficiency of the 資本／首都 which had carried it on one year to carry it on the next.

It has partly been driven from them by the advantage which the high 率 of 利益（をあげる）, 設立するd in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, gives to other countries in all the different 支店s of 貿易（する） of which 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain has not the monopoly.

As the monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する） has drawn from those other 支店s a part of the British 資本／首都 which would さもなければ have been 雇うd in them, so it has 軍隊d into them many 外資s which would never have gone to them had they not been expelled from the 植民地 貿易（する）. In those other 支店s of 貿易（する） it has 減らすd the 競争 of British 資本／首都, and その為に raised the 率 of British 利益（をあげる） higher than it さもなければ would have been. On the contrary, it has 増加するd the 競争 of 外資s, and その為に sunk the 率 of foreign 利益（をあげる） lower than it さもなければ would have been. Both in the one way and in the other it must evidently have 支配するd 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain to a 親族 disadvantage in all those other 支店s of 貿易（する）.

The 植民地 貿易（する）, however, it may perhaps be said, is more advantageous to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain than any other; and the monopoly, by 軍隊ing into that 貿易（する） a greater 割合 of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain than what would さもなければ have gone to it, has turned that 資本／首都 into an 雇用 more advantageous to the country than any other which it could have 設立する.

The most advantageous 雇用 of any 資本／首都 to the country to which it belongs is that which 持続するs there the greatest 量 of 生産力のある 労働, and 増加するs the most the 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of that country. But the 量 of 生産力のある 労働 which any 資本／首都 雇うd in the foreign 貿易（する） of 消費 can 持続する is 正確に／まさに in 割合, it has been shown in the second 調書をとる／予約する, to the frequency of its returns. A 資本／首都 of a thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs, for example, 雇うd in a foreign 貿易（する） of 消費, of which the returns are made 定期的に once in the year, can keep in constant 雇用, in the country to which it belongs, a 量 of 生産力のある 労働 equal to what a thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs can 持続する there for a year. If the returns are made twice or thrice in the year, it can keep in constant 雇用 a 量 of 生産力のある 労働 equal to what two or three thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs can 持続する there for a year. A foreign 貿易（する） of 消費 carried on with a 隣人ing country is, upon this account, in general more advantageous than one carried on with a distant country; and for the same 推論する／理由 a direct foreign 貿易（する） of 消費, as it has likewise been shown in the second 調書をとる／予約する, is in general more advantageous than a 一連の会議、交渉／完成する-about one.

But the monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する）, so far as it has operated upon the 雇用 of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, has in all 事例／患者s 軍隊d some part of it from a foreign 貿易（する） of 消費 carried on with a 隣人ing, to one carried on with a more distant country, and in many 事例／患者s from a direct foreign 貿易（する） of 消費 to a 一連の会議、交渉／完成する-about one.

First, the monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する） has in all 事例／患者s 軍隊d some part of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain from a foreign 貿易（する） of 消費 carried on with a 隣人ing to one carried on with a more distant country.

It has, in all 事例／患者s, 軍隊d some part of that 資本／首都 from the 貿易（する） with Europe, and with the countries which 嘘（をつく） 一連の会議、交渉／完成する the Mediterranean Sea, to that with the more distant 地域s of America and the West Indies, from which the returns are やむを得ず いっそう少なく たびたび（訪れる）, not only on account of the greater distance, but on account of the peculiar circumstances of those countries. New 植民地s, it has already been 観察するd, are always understocked. Their 資本／首都 is always much いっそう少なく than what they could 雇う with 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益（をあげる） and advantage in the 改良 and cultivation of their land. They have a constant 需要・要求する, therefore, for more 資本／首都 than they have of their own; and, ーするために 供給（する） the 欠陥／不足 of their own, they endeavour to borrow as much as they can of the mother country, to whom they are, therefore, always in 負債. The most ありふれた way in which the colonists 契約 this 負債 is not by borrowing upon 社債 of the rich people of the mother country, though they いつかs do this too, but by running as much in arrear to their 特派員s, who 供給（する） them with goods from Europe, as those 特派員s will 許す them. Their 年次の returns frequently do not 量 to more than a third, and いつかs not to so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 割合 of what they 借りがある. The whole 資本／首都, therefore, which their 特派員s 前進する to them is seldom returned to Britain in いっそう少なく than three, and いつかs not in いっそう少なく than four or five years. But a British 資本／首都 of a thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs, for example, which is returned to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain only once in five years, can keep in constant 雇用 only one-fifth part of the British 産業 which it could 持続する if the whole was returned once in the year; and, instead of the 量 of 産業 which a thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs could 持続する for a year, can keep in constant 雇用 the 量 only which two hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs can 持続する for a year. The planter, no 疑問, by the high price which he 支払う／賃金s for the goods from Europe, by the 利益／興味 upon the 法案s which he 認めるs at distant dates, and by the （売買）手数料，委託（する）／委員会／権限 upon the 再開 of those which he 認めるs at 近づく dates, makes up, and probably more than makes up, all the loss which his 特派員 can 支える by this 延期する. But though he may （不足などを）補う the loss of his 特派員, he cannot （不足などを）補う that of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. In a 貿易（する） of which the returns are very distant, the 利益（をあげる） of the merchant may be as 広大な／多数の／重要な or greater than in one in which they are very たびたび（訪れる） and 近づく; but the advantage of the country in which he resides, the 量 of 生産力のある 労働 絶えず 持続するd there, the 年次の produce of the land and 労働 must always be much いっそう少なく. That the returns of the 貿易（する） to America, and still more those of that to the West Indies are, in general, not only more distant but more 不規律な, and more uncertain too, than those of the 貿易（する） to any part of Europe, or even of the countries which 嘘（をつく） 一連の会議、交渉／完成する the Mediterranean Sea, will readily be 許すd, I imagine, by everybody who has any experience of those different 支店s of 貿易（する）.

Secondly, the monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する） has, in many 事例／患者s, 軍隊d some part of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain from a direct foreign 貿易（する） of 消費 into a 一連の会議、交渉／完成する-about one.

の中で the enumerated 商品／必需品s which can be sent to no other market but 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, there are several of which the 量 越えるs very much the 消費 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and of which a part, therefore, must be 輸出（する）d to other countries. But this cannot be done without 軍隊ing some part of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain into a 一連の会議、交渉／完成する-about foreign 貿易（する） of 消費. Maryland and Virginia, for example, send 毎年 to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain 上向きs of ninety-six thousand hogsheads of タバコ, and the 消費 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain is said not to 越える fourteen thousand. 上向きs of eighty-two thousand hogsheads, therefore, must be 輸出（する）d to other countries, to フラン, to Holland, and to the countries which 嘘（をつく） 一連の会議、交渉／完成する the Baltic and Mediterranean Seas. But that part of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain which brings those eighty-two thousand hogsheads to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, which re-輸出（する）s them from thence to those other countries, and which brings 支援する from those other countries to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain either goods or money in return, is 雇うd in a 一連の会議、交渉／完成する-about foreign 貿易（する） of 消費; and is やむを得ず 軍隊d into this 雇用 ーするために f London, indeed, it is 一般的に sold for ready money. The 支配する is, 重さを計る and 支払う／賃金. At the port of London, therefore, the final returns of the whole 一連の会議、交渉／完成する-about 貿易（する） are more distant than the returns from America by the time only which the goods may 嘘（をつく） unsold in the 倉庫／問屋; where, however, they may いつかs 嘘（をつく） long enough. But had not the 植民地s been 限定するd to the market of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain for the sale of their タバコ, very little more of it would probably have come to us than what was necessary for the home 消費. The goods which 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain 購入（する）s at 現在の for her own 消費 with the 広大な／多数の／重要な 黒字／過剰 of タバコ which she 輸出（する）s to other countries, she would in this 事例／患者 probably have 購入（する）d with the 即座の produce of her own 産業, or with some part of her own 製造（する）s. That produce, those 製造（する）s, instead of 存在 almost 完全に ふさわしい to one 広大な／多数の／重要な market, as at 現在の, would probably have been fitted to a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of smaller markets. Instead of one 広大な／多数の／重要な 一連の会議、交渉／完成する-about foreign 貿易（する） of 消費, 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain would probably have carried on a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of small direct foreign 貿易（する）s of the same 肉親，親類d. On account of the frequency of the returns, a part, and probably but a small part; perhaps not above a third or a fourth of the 資本／首都 which at 現在の carries on this 広大な／多数の／重要な 一連の会議、交渉／完成する-about 貿易（する） might have been 十分な to carry on all those small direct ones, might have kept in constant 雇用 an equal 量 of British 産業, and have 平等に supported the 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. All the 目的s of this 貿易（する） 存在, in this manner, answered by a much smaller 資本／首都, there would have been a large spare 資本／首都 to 適用する to other 目的s: to 改善する the lands, to 増加する the 製造（する）s, and to 延長する the 商業 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain; to come into 競争 at least with the other British 資本／首都s 雇うd in all those different ways, to 減ずる the 率 of 利益（をあげる） in them all, and その為に to give to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, in al l of them, a 優越 over other countries still greater than what she at 現在の enjoys.

The monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する）, too, has 軍隊d some part of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain from all foreign 貿易（する） of 消費 to a carrying 貿易（する）; and その結果, from supporting more or いっそう少なく the 産業 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, to be 雇うd altogether in supporting partly that of the 植民地s and partly that of some other countries.

The goods, for example, which are 毎年 購入（する）d with the 広大な／多数の／重要な 黒字／過剰 of eighty-two thousand hogsheads of タバコ 毎年 re-輸出（する）d from 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain are not all 消費するd in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. Part of them, linen from Germany and Holland, for example, is returned to the 植民地s for their particular 消費. But that part of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain which buys the タバコ with which this linen is afterwards bought is やむを得ず 孤立した from supporting the 産業 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, to be 雇うd altogether in supporting, partly that of the 植民地s, and partly that of the particular countries who 支払う／賃金 for this タバコ with the produce of their own 産業.

The monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する） besides, by 軍隊ing に向かって it a much greater 割合 of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain than what would 自然に have gone to it, seems to have broken altogether that natural balance which would さもなければ have taken place の中で all the different 支店s of British 産業. The 産業 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, instead of 存在 融通するd to a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of small markets, has been principally ふさわしい to one 広大な／多数の／重要な market. Her 商業, instead of running in a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of small channels, has been taught to run principally in one 広大な／多数の／重要な channel. But the whole system of her 産業 and 商業 has その為に been （判決などを）下すd いっそう少なく 安全な・保証する, the whole 明言する／公表する of her 団体／死体 politic いっそう少なく healthful than it さもなければ would have been. In her 現在の 条件, 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain 似ているs one of those unwholesome 団体／死体s in which some of the 決定的な parts are overgrown, and which, upon that account, are liable to many dangerous disorders 不十分な 出来事/事件 to those in which all the parts are more 適切に 割合d. A small stop in that 広大な／多数の／重要な 血-大型船, which has been artificially swelled beyond its natural dimensions, and through which an unnatural 割合 of the 産業 and 商業 of the country has been 軍隊d to 循環させる, is very likely to bring on the most dangerous disorders upon the whole 団体／死体 politic. The 期待 of a 決裂 with the 植民地s, accordingly, has struck the people of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain with more terror than they ever felt for a Spanish armada, or a French 侵略. It was this terror, whether 井戸／弁護士席 or ill grounded, which （判決などを）下すd the 廃止する of the Stamp 行為／法令／行動する, の中で the merchants at least, a popular 手段. In the total 除外 from the 植民地 market, was it to last only for a few years, the greater part of our merchants used to fancy that they foresaw an entire stop to their 貿易（する）; the greater part of our master 製造業者s, the entire 廃虚 of their 商売／仕事; and the greater part of our workmen, an end of their 雇用. A 決裂 with any of our 隣人s upon the 反対／詐欺 tinent, though likely, too, to occasion some stop or interruption in the 雇用s of some of all these different orders of people, is foreseen, however, without any such general emotion. The 血, of which the 循環／発行部数 is stopped in some of the smaller 大型船s, easily disgorges itself into the greater without occasioning any dangerous disorder; but, when it is stopped in any of the greater 大型船s, convulsions, apoplexy, or death, are the 即座の and 避けられない consequences. If but one of those overgrown 製造（する）s, which, by means either of bounties or of the monopoly of the home and 植民地 markets, have been artificially raised up to an unnatural 高さ, finds some small stop or interruption in its 雇用, it frequently occasions a 反乱（を起こす） and disorder alarming to 政府, and embarrassing even to the 審議s of the 立法機関. How 広大な／多数の／重要な, therefore, would be the disorder and 混乱, it was thought, which must やむを得ず be occasioned by a sudden and entire stop in the 雇用 of so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 割合 of our 主要な／長／主犯 製造業者s.

Some 穏健な and 漸進的な 緩和 of the 法律s which give to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain the 排除的 貿易（する） to the 植民地s, till it is （判決などを）下すd in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 解放する／自由な, seems to be the only expedient which can, in all 未来 times, 配達する her from this danger, which can enable her or even 軍隊 her to 身を引く some part of her 資本／首都 from this overgrown 雇用, and to turn it, though with いっそう少なく 利益（をあげる）, に向かって other 雇用s; and which, by 徐々に 減らすing one 支店 of her 産業 and 徐々に 増加するing all the 残り／休憩（する）, can by degrees 回復する all the different 支店s of it to that natural, healthful, and proper 割合 which perfect liberty やむを得ず 設立するs, and which perfect liberty can alone 保存する. To open the 植民地 貿易（する） all at once to all nations might not only occasion some transitory inconveniency, but a 広大な／多数の／重要な 永久の loss to the greater part of those whose 産業 or 資本／首都 is at 現在の engaged in it. The sudden loss of the 雇用 even of the ships which 輸入する the eighty-two thousand hogsheads of タバコ, which are over and above the 消費 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, might alone be felt very sensibly. Such are the unfortunate 影響s of all the 規則s of the 商業の system! They not only introduce very dangerous disorders into the 明言する／公表する of the 団体／死体 politic, but disorders which it is often difficult to 治療（薬）, without occasioning for a time at least, still greater disorders. In what manner, therefore, the 植民地 貿易（する） ought 徐々に to be opened; what are the 抑制s which ought first, and what are those which ought last to be taken away; or in what manner the natural system of perfect liberty and 司法（官） ought 徐々に to be 回復するd, we must leave to the 知恵 of 未来 statesmen and 立法議員s to 決定する.

Five different events, unforeseen and unthought of, have very fortunately concurred to 妨げる 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain from feeling, so sensibly as it was 一般に 推定する／予想するd she would, the total 除外 which has now taken place for more than a year (from the first of December, 1774) from a very important 支店 of the 植民地 貿易（する）, that of the twelve associated 州s of North America. First, those 植民地s, in 準備するing themselves for their 非，不，無-輸入 協定, drained 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain 完全に of all the 商品／必需品s which were fit for their market; secondly, the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 需要・要求する of the Spanish Flota has, this year, drained Germany and the North of many 商品／必需品s, linen in particular, which used to come into 競争, even in the British market, with the 製造（する）s of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain; thirdly, the peace between Russia and Turkey has occasioned an 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 需要・要求する from the Turkey market, which, during the 苦しめる of the country, and while a ロシアの (n)艦隊／(a)素早い was 巡航するing in the 群島, had been very 貧しく 供給（する）d; fourthly, the 需要・要求する of the North of Europe for the 製造（する）s of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain has been 増加するing from year to year for some time past; and fifthly, the late partition and consequential pacification of Poland, by 開始 the market of that 広大な／多数の／重要な country, have this year 追加するd an 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 需要・要求する from thence to the 増加するing 需要・要求する of the North. These events are all, except the fourth, in their nature transitory and 偶発の, and the 除外 from so important a 支店 of the 植民地 貿易（する）, if unfortunately it should continue much longer, may still occasion some degree of 苦しめる. This 苦しめる, however, as it will come on 徐々に, will be felt much いっそう少なく 厳しく than if it had come on all at once; and, in the 合間, the 産業 and 資本／首都 of the country may find a new 雇用 and direction, so as to 妨げる this 苦しめる from ever rising to any かなりの 高さ.

The monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する）, therefore, so far as it has turned に向かって that 貿易（する） a greater 割合 of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain than what would さもなければ have gone to it, has in all 事例／患者s turned it, from a foreign 貿易（する） of 消費 with a 隣人ing into one with a more distant country; in many 事例／患者s, from a direct foreign 貿易（する） of 消費 into a 一連の会議、交渉／完成する-about one; and in some 事例／患者s, from all foreign 貿易（する） of 消費 into a carrying 貿易（する）. It has in all 事例／患者s, therefore, turned it from a direction in which it would have 持続するd a greater 量 of 生産力のある 労働 into one in which it can 持続する a much smaller 量. By 控訴ing, besides, to one particular market only so 広大な／多数の／重要な a part of the 産業 and 商業 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, it has （判決などを）下すd the whole 明言する／公表する of that 産業 and 商業 more 不安定な and いっそう少なく 安全な・保証する than if their produce had been 融通するd to a greater variety of markets.

We must carefully distinguish between the 影響s of the 植民地 貿易（する） and those of the monopoly of that 貿易（する）. The former are always and やむを得ず 有益な; the latter always and やむを得ず hurtful. But the former are so 有益な that the 植民地 貿易（する）, though 支配する to a monopoly, and notwithstanding the hurtful 影響s of that monopoly, is still upon the whole 有益な, and 大いに 有益な; though a good 取引，協定 いっそう少なく so than it さもなければ would be.

The 影響 of the 植民地 貿易（する） in its natural and 解放する／自由な 明言する／公表する is to open a 広大な／多数の／重要な, though distant, market for such parts of the produce of British 産業 as may 越える the 需要・要求する of the markets nearer home, of those of Europe, and of the countries which 嘘（をつく） 一連の会議、交渉／完成する the Mediterranean Sea. In its natural and 解放する／自由な 明言する／公表する, the 植民地 貿易（する）, without 製図／抽選 from those markets any part of the produce which had ever been sent to them, encourages 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain to 増加する the 黒字／過剰 continually by continually 現在のing new 同等（の）s to be 交流d for it. In its natural and 解放する／自由な 明言する／公表する, the 植民地 貿易（する） tends to 増加する the 量 of 生産力のある 労働 in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, but without altering in any 尊敬（する）・点 the direction of that which had been 雇うd there before. In the natural and 解放する／自由な 明言する／公表する of the 植民地 貿易（する）, the 競争 of all other nations would 妨げる the 率 of 利益（をあげる） from rising above the ありふれた level either in the new market or in the new 雇用. The new market, without 製図／抽選 anything from the old one, would create, if one may say so, a new produce for its own 供給（する）; and that new produce would 構成する a new 資本／首都 for carrying on the new 雇用, which in the same manner would draw nothing from the old one.

The monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する）, on the contrary, by 除外するing the 競争 of other nations, and その為に raising the 率 of 利益（をあげる） both in the new market and in the new 雇用, draws produce from the old market and 資本／首都 from the old 雇用. To augment our 株 of the 植民地 貿易（する） beyond what it さもなければ would be is the avowed 目的 of the monopoly. If our 株 of that 貿易（する） were to be no greater with than it would have been without the monopoly, there could have been no 推論する／理由 for 設立するing the monopoly. But whatever 軍隊s into a 支店 of 貿易（する） of which the returns are slower and more distant than those of the greater part of other 貿易（する）s, a greater 割合 of the 資本／首都 of any country than what of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える would go to that 支店, やむを得ず （判決などを）下すs the whole 量 of 生産力のある 労働 毎年 持続するd there, the whole 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of that country, いっそう少なく than they さもなければ would be. It keeps 負かす／撃墜する the 歳入 of the inhabitants of that country below what it would 自然に rise to, and その為に 減らすs their 力／強力にする of accumulation. It not only 妨げるs, at all times, their 資本／首都 from 持続するing so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 量 of 生産力のある 労働 as it would さもなければ 持続する, but it 妨げるs it from 増加するing so 急速な／放蕩な as it would さもなければ 増加する, and その結果 from 持続するing a still greater 量 of 生産力のある 労働.

The natural good 影響s of the 植民地 貿易（する）, however, more than counterbalance to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain the bad 影響s of the monopoly, so that, monopoly and all together, that 貿易（する）, even as it carried on at 現在の, is not only advantageous, but 大いに advantageous. The new market and the new 雇用 which are opened by the 植民地 貿易（する） are of much greater extent than that 部分 of the old market and of the old 雇用 which is lost by the monopoly. The new produce and the new 資本／首都 which has been created, if one may say so, by the 植民地 貿易（する）, 持続する in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain a greater 量 of 生産力のある 労働 than what can have been thrown out of 雇用 by the revulsion of 資本／首都 from other 貿易（する）s of which the returns are more たびたび（訪れる）. If the 植民地 貿易（する）, however, even as it is carried on at 現在の, is advantageous to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, it is not by means of the monopoly, but in spite of the monopoly.

It is rather for the 製造（する）d than for the rude produce of Europe that the 植民地 貿易（する） opens a new market. 農業 is the proper 商売／仕事 of all new 植民地s; a 商売／仕事 which the cheapness of land （判決などを）下すs more advantageous than any other. They abound, therefore, in the rude produce of land, and instead of 輸入するing it from other countries, they have 一般に a large 黒字／過剰 to 輸出（する）. In new 植民地s, 農業 either draws 手渡すs from all other 雇用s, or keeps them from going to any other 雇用. There are few 手渡すs to spare for the necessary, and 非，不，無 for the ornamental 製造（する）s. The greater part of the 製造（する）s of both 肉親，親類d they find it cheaper to 購入（する） of other countries than to make for themselves. It is 主として by encouraging the 製造（する）s of Europe that the 植民地 貿易（する） 間接に encourages its 農業. The 製造（する）s of Europe, to whom that 貿易（する） gives 雇用, 構成する a new market for the produce of the land; and the most advantageous of all markets, the home market for the corn and cattle, for the bread and butcher's meat of Europe, is thus 大いに 延長するd by means of the 貿易（する） to America.

But that the monopoly of the 貿易（する） of populous and 栄えるing 植民地s is not alone 十分な to 設立する, or even to 持続する 製造（する）s in any country, the examples of Spain and Portugal 十分に 論証する. Spain and Portugal were 製造業の countries before they had any かなりの 植民地s. Since they had the richest and most fertile in the world, they have both 中止するd to be so.

In Spain and Portugal the bad 影響s of the monopoly, 悪化させるd by other 原因（となる）s, have perhaps nearly overbalanced the natural good 影響s of the 植民地 貿易（する）. These 原因（となる）s seem to be other monopolies of different 肉親，親類d; the degradation of the value of gold and silver below what it is in most other countries; the 除外 from foreign markets by 妥当でない 税金s upon exportation, and the 狭くするing of the home market, by still more 妥当でない 税金s upon the transportation of goods from one part of the country to another; but above all, that 不規律な and 部分的な／不平等な 行政 of 司法（官）, which often 保護するs the rich and powerful debtor from the 追跡 of his 負傷させるd creditor, and which makes the industrious part of the nation afraid to 準備する goods for the 消費 of those haughty and 広大な／多数の／重要な men to whom they dare not 辞退する to sell upon credit, and from they are altogether uncertain of 返済.

In England, on the contrary, the natural good 影響s of the 植民地 貿易（する）, 補助装置d by other 原因（となる）s, have in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 征服する／打ち勝つd the bad 影響s of the monopoly. These 原因（となる）s seem to be: the general liberty of 貿易（する）, which, notwithstanding some 抑制s, is at least equal, perhaps superior, to what it is in any other country; the liberty of 輸出（する）ing, 義務 解放する／自由な, almost all sorts of goods which are the produce of 国内の 産業 to almost any foreign country; and what perhaps is of still greater importance, the unbounded liberty of 輸送（する）ing them from any one part of our own country to any other without 存在 強いるd to give any account to any public office, without 存在 liable to question or examination of any 肉親，親類d; but above all, that equal and impartial 行政 of 司法（官） which （判決などを）下すs the 権利s of the meanest British 支配する respectable to the greatest, and which, by 安全な・保証するing to every man the fruits of his own 産業, gives the greatest and most effectual 激励 to every sort of 産業.

If the 製造（する）s of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, however, have been 前進するd, as they certainly have, by the 植民地 貿易（する）, it has not been by means of the monopoly of that 貿易（する） but in spite of the monopoly. The 影響 of the monopoly has been, not to augment the 量, but to alter the 質 and 形態／調整 of a part of the 製造（する）s of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and to 融通する to a market, from which the returns are slow and distant, what would さもなければ have been 融通するd to one from which the returns are たびたび（訪れる） and 近づく. Its 影響 has その結果 been to turn a part of the 資本／首都 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain from an 雇用 in which it would have 持続するd a greater 量 of 製造業の 産業 to one in which it 持続するs a much smaller, and その為に to 減らす, instead of 増加するing, the whole 量 of 製造業の 産業 持続するd in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain.

The monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する）, therefore, like all the other mean and malignant expedients of the 商業の system, depresses the 産業 of all other countries, but 主として that of the 植民地s, without in the least 増加するing, but on the contrary 減らすing that of the country in whose favour it is 設立するd.

The monopoly 妨げるs the 資本／首都 of that country, whatever may at any particular time be the extent of that 資本／首都, from 持続するing so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 量 of 生産力のある 労働 as it would さもなければ 持続する, and from affording so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 歳入 to the industrious inhabitants as it would さもなければ afford. But as 資本／首都 can be 増加するd only by 貯金 from 歳入, the monopoly, by 妨げるing it from affording so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 歳入 as it would さもなければ afford, やむを得ず 妨げるs it from 増加するing so 急速な／放蕩な as it would さもなければ 増加する, and その結果 from 持続するing a still greater 量 of 生産力のある 労働, and affording a still greater 歳入 to the industrious inhabitants of that country. One 広大な／多数の／重要な 初めの source of 歳入, therefore, the 給料 of 労働, the monopoly must やむを得ず have （判決などを）下すd at all times いっそう少なく abundant than it さもなければ would have been.

By raising the 率 of 商業の 利益（をあげる）, the monopoly discourages the 改良 of land. The 利益（をあげる） of 改良 depends upon the difference between what the land 現実に produces, and what, by the 使用／適用 of a 確かな 資本／首都, it can be made to produce. If this difference affords a greater 利益（をあげる） than what can be drawn from an equal 資本／首都 in any 商業の 雇用, the 改良 of land will draw 資本／首都 from all 商業の 雇用s. If the 利益（をあげる） is いっそう少なく, 商業の 雇用s will draw 資本／首都 from the 改良 of land. Whatever, therefore, raises the 率 of 商業の 利益（をあげる）, either 少なくなるs the 優越 or 増加するs the inferiority of the 利益（をあげる） of 改良; and in the one 事例／患者 妨げるs 資本／首都 from going to 改良, and in the other draws 資本／首都 from it. But by discouraging 改良, the monopoly やむを得ず retards the natural 増加する of another 広大な／多数の／重要な 初めの source of 歳入, the rent of land. By raising the 率 of 利益（をあげる）, too, the monopoly やむを得ず keeps up the market 率 of 利益／興味 higher than it さもなければ would be. But the price of land in 割合 to the rent which it affords, the number of years 購入（する） which is 一般的に paid for it, やむを得ず 落ちるs as the 率 of 利益／興味 rises, and rises as the 率 of 利益／興味 落ちるs. The monopoly, therefore, 傷つけるs the 利益／興味 of the landlord two different ways, by retarding the natural 増加する, first, of his rent, and secondly, of the price which he would get for his land in 割合 to the rent which it affords.

The monopoly indeed raises the 率 of 商業の 利益（をあげる）, and その為に augments somewhat the 伸び（る） of our merchants. But as it 妨害するs the natural 増加する of 資本／首都, it tends rather to 減らす than to 増加する the sum total of the 歳入 which the inhabitants of the country derive from the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株; a small 利益（をあげる） upon a 広大な／多数の／重要な 資本／首都 一般に affording a greater 歳入 than a 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益（をあげる） upon a small one. The monopoly raises the 率 of 利益（をあげる）, but it 妨げるs the sum of 利益（をあげる） from rising so high as it さもなければ would do.

All the 初めの sources of 歳入, the 給料 of 労働, the rent of land, and the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, the monopoly （判決などを）下すs much いっそう少なく abundant than they さもなければ would be. To 促進する the little 利益／興味 of one little order of men in one country, it 傷つけるs the 利益／興味 of all other orders of men in that country, and of all men in all other countries.

It is 単独で by raising the ordinary 率 of 利益（をあげる） that the monopoly either has 証明するd or could 証明する advantageous to any one particular order of men. But besides all the bad 影響s to the country in general, which have already been について言及するd as やむを得ず resulting from a high 率 of 利益（をあげる）, there is one more 致命的な, perhaps, than all these put together, but which, if we may 裁判官 from experience, is inseparably connected with it. The high 率 of 利益（をあげる） seems everywhere to destroy that parsimony which in other circumstances is natural to the character of the merchant. When 利益（をあげる）s are high that sober virtue seems to be superfluous and expensive 高級な to 控訴 better the affluence of his 状況／情勢. But the owners of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 商業の 資本／首都s are やむを得ず the leaders and conductors of the whole 産業 of every nation, and their example has a much greater 影響（力） upon the manners of the whole industrious part of it than that of any other order of men. If his 雇用者 is attentive and parsimonious, the workman is very likely to be so too; but if the master is dissolute and disorderly, the servant who 形態／調整s his work によれば the pattern which his master 定める／命ずるs to him will 形態／調整 his life too によれば the example which he 始める，決めるs him. Accumulation is thus 妨げるd in the 手渡すs of all those who are 自然に the most 性質の／したい気がして to 蓄積する, and the 基金s 運命にあるd for the 維持／整備 of 生産力のある 労働 receive no augmentation from the 歳入 of those who ought 自然に to augment them the most. The 資本／首都 of the country, instead of 増加するing, 徐々に dwindles away, and the 量 of 生産力のある 労働 持続するd in it grows every day いっそう少なく and いっそう少なく. Have the exorbitant 利益（をあげる）s of the merchants of Cadiz and Lisbon augmented the 資本／首都 of Spain and Portugal? Have they 緩和するd the poverty, have they 促進するd the 産業 of those two beggarly countries? Such has been the トン of 商業の expense in those two 貿易（する）ing cities that those exorbitant 利益（をあげる）s, far from augmenting the genera l 資本／首都 of the country, seem 不十分な to have been 十分な to keep up the 資本／首都s upon which they were made. 外資s are every day intruding themselves, if I may say so, more and more into the 貿易（する） of Cadiz and Lisbon. It is to 追放する those 外資s from a 貿易（する） which their own grows every day more and more insufficient for carrying on that the Spaniards and Portuguese endeavour every day to straighten more and more the galling 禁止（する）d of their absurd monopoly. Compare the 商業の manners of Cadiz and Lisbon with those of Amsterdam, and you will be sensible how 異なって the 行為／行う and character of merchants are 影響する／感情d by the high and by the low 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株. The merchants of London, indeed, have not yet 一般に become such magnificent lords as those of Cadiz and Lisbon, but neither are they in general such attentive and parsimonious burghers as those of Amsterdam. They are supposed, however, many of them, to be a good 取引，協定 richer than the greater part of the former, and not やめる so rich as many of the latter. But the 率 of their 利益（をあげる） is 一般的に much lower than that of the former, and a good 取引，協定 higher than that of the latter. Light come, light go, says the proverb; and the ordinary トン of expense seems everywhere to be 規制するd, not so much によれば the real ability of spending, as to the supposed 施設 of getting money to spend.

It is thus that the 選び出す／独身 advantage which the monopoly procures to a 選び出す／独身 order of men is in many different ways hurtful to the general 利益／興味 of the country.

To 設立する a 広大な／多数の／重要な empire for the 単独の 目的 of raising up a people of 顧客s may at first sight appear a 事業／計画（する） fit only for a nation of shopkeepers. It is, however, a 事業／計画（する） altogether unfit for a nation of shopkeepers; but 極端に fit for a nation whose 政府 is 影響（力）d by shopkeepers. Such statesmen, and such statesmen only, are 有能な of fancying that they will find some advantage in 雇うing the 血 and treasure of their fellow-国民s to 設立する and 持続する such an empire. Say to a shopkeeper, "Buy me a good 広い地所, and I shall always buy my 着せる／賦与するs at your shop, even though I should 支払う／賃金 somewhat dearer than what I can have them for at other shops"; and you will not find him very 今後 to embrace your 提案. But should any other person buy you such an 広い地所, the shopkeeper would be much 強いるd to your benefactor if he would enjoin you to buy all your 着せる／賦与するs at his shop. England 購入（する）d for some of her 支配するs, who 設立する themselves uneasy at home, a 広大な／多数の／重要な 広い地所 in a distant country. The price, indeed, was very small, and instead of thirty years' 購入（する）, the ordinary price of land in the 現在の times, it 量d to little more than the expense of the different 器具／備品s which made the first 発見, reconnoitred the coast, and took a fictitious 所有／入手 of the country. The land was good and of 広大な／多数の／重要な extent, and the cultivators having plenty of good ground to work upon, and 存在 for some time at liberty to sell their produce where they pleased, became in the course of little more than thirty or forty years (between 1620 and 1660) so 非常に／多数の and 栄えるing a people that the shopkeepers and other 仲買人s of England wished to 安全な・保証する to themselves the monopoly of their custom. Without pretending, therefore, that they had paid any part, either of the 初めの 購入（する）-money, or of the その後の expense of 改良, they 嘆願（書）d the 議会 that the cultivators of America might for the 未来 be 限定するd to their shop; first, for buying all the goods which they 病弱な ted from Europe; and, secondly, for selling all such parts of their own produce as those 仲買人s might find it convenient to buy. For they did not find it convenient to buy every part of it. Some parts of it 輸入するd into England might have 干渉するd with some of the 貿易（する）s which they themselves carried on at home. Those particular parts of it, therefore, they were willing that the colonists should sell where they could- the さらに先に off the better; and upon that account 目的d that their market should be 限定するd to the countries south of Cape Finisterre. A 条項 in the famous 行為／法令／行動する of 航海 設立するd this truly shopkeeper 提案 into a 法律.

The 維持／整備 of this monopoly has hitherto been the 主要な／長／主犯, or more 適切に perhaps the 単独の end and 目的 of the dominion which 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain assumes over her 植民地s. In the 排除的 貿易（する）, it is supposed, consists the 広大な／多数の／重要な advantage of 州s, which have never yet afforded either 歳入 or 軍の 軍隊 for the support of the civil 政府, or the defence of the mother country. The monopoly is the 主要な／長／主犯 badge of their dependency, and it is the 単独の fruit which has hitherto been gathered from that dependency. Whatever expense 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain has hitherto laid out in 持続するing this dependency has really been laid out ーするために support this monopoly. The expense of the ordinary peace 設立 of the 植民地s 量d, before the 開始／学位授与式 of the 現在の 騒動s, to the 支払う／賃金 of twenty 連隊s of foot; to the expense of the 大砲, 蓄える／店s, and 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 準備／条項s with which it was necessary to 供給（する） them; and to the expense of a very かなりの 海軍の 軍隊 which was 絶えず kept up, ーするために guard, from the 密輸するing 大型船s of other nations, the 巨大な coast of North America, and that of our West Indian islands. The whole expense of this peace 設立 was a 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金 upon the 歳入 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and was, at the same time, the smallest part of what the dominion of the 植民地s has cost the mother country. If we would know the 量 of the whole, we must 追加する to the 年次の expense of this peace 設立 the 利益／興味 of the sums which, in consequence of her considering her 植民地s as 州s 支配する to her dominion, 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain has upon different occasions laid out upon their defence. We must 追加する to it, in particular, the whole expense of the late war, and a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of that of the war which に先行するd it. The late war was altogether a 植民地 quarrel, and the whole expense of it, in whatever part of the world it may have been laid out, whether in Germany or the East Indies, ought 正確に，正当に to be 明言する／公表するd to the account of the 植民地s. It 量 ed to more than ninety millions 英貨の／純銀の, 含むing not only the new 負債 which was 契約d, but the two shillings in the 続けざまに猛撃する 付加 land 税金, and the sums which were every year borrowed from the 沈むing 基金. The Spanish war, which began in 1739, was principally a 植民地 quarrel. Its 主要な／長／主犯 反対する was to 妨げる the search of the 植民地 ships which carried on a contraband 貿易（する） with the Spanish Main. This whole expense is, in reality, a bounty which has been given ーするために support a monopoly. The pretended 目的 of it was to encourage the 製造（する）s, and to 増加する the 商業 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. But its real 影響 has been to raise the 率 of 商業の 利益（をあげる）, and to enable our merchants to turn into a 支店 of 貿易（する）, of which the returns are more slow and distant than those of the greater part of other 貿易（する）s, a greater 割合 of their 資本／首都 than they さもなければ would have done; two events which, if a bounty could have 妨げるd, it might perhaps have been very 井戸／弁護士席 価値（がある） while to give such a bounty.

Under the 現在の system of 管理／経営, therefore, 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain derives nothing but loss from the dominion which she assumes over her 植民地s.

To 提案する that 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain should 任意に give up all 当局 over her 植民地s, and leave them to elect their own 治安判事s, to 制定する their own 法律s, and to make peace and war as they might think proper, would be to 提案する such a 手段 as never was, and never will be 可決する・採択するd, by any nation in the world. No nation ever 任意に gave up the dominion of any 州, how troublesome soever it might be to 治める／統治する it, and how small soever the 歳入 which it afforded might be in 割合 to the expense which it occasioned. Such sacrifices, though they might frequently be agreeable to the 利益／興味, are always mortifying to the pride of every nation, and what is perhaps of still greater consequence, they are always contrary to the 私的な 利益／興味 of the 治める／統治するing part of it, who would その為に be 奪うd of the 処分 of many places of 信用 and 利益（をあげる）, of many 適切な時期s of acquiring wealth and distinction, which the 所有／入手 of the most 騒然とした, and, to the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, the most 無益な 州 seldom fails to afford. The most visionary 熱中している人 would 不十分な be 有能な of 提案するing such a 手段 with any serious hopes at least of its ever 存在 可決する・採択するd. If it was 可決する・採択するd, however, 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain would not only be すぐに 解放する／自由なd from the whole 年次の expense of the peace 設立 of the 植民地s, but might settle with them such a 条約 of 商業 as would effectually 安全な・保証する to her a 自由貿易, more advantageous to the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, though いっそう少なく so to the merchants, than the monopoly which she at 現在の enjoys. By thus parting good friends, the natural affection of the 植民地s to the mother country which, perhaps, our late dissensions have 井戸／弁護士席 nigh 消滅させるd, would quickly 生き返らせる. It might 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる them not only to 尊敬（する）・点, for whole centuries together, that 条約 of 商業 which they had 結論するd with us at parting, but to favour us in war 同様に as in 貿易（する）, and, instead of 騒然とした and factious 支配するs, to become our most faithful, affectionate, and generous 同盟（する）s; and the same sort of parental affection on the one 味方する, and filial 尊敬（する）・点 on the other, might 生き返らせる between 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain and her 植民地s, which used to subsist between those of 古代の Greece and the mother city from which they descended.

ーするために （判決などを）下す any 州 advantageous to the empire to which it belongs, it せねばならない afford, in time of peace, a 歳入 to the public 十分な not only for defraying the whole expense of its own peace 設立, but for 与える／捧げるing its 割合 to the support of the general 政府 of the empire. Every 州 やむを得ず 与える／捧げるs, more or いっそう少なく, to 増加する the expense of that general 政府. If any particular 州, therefore, does not 与える／捧げる its 株 に向かって defraying this expense, an unequal 重荷（を負わせる） must be thrown upon some other part of the empire. The 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 歳入, too, which every 州 affords to the public in time of war, ought, from parity of 推論する／理由, to 耐える the same 割合 to the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 歳入 of the whole empire which its ordinary 歳入 does in time of peace. That neither the ordinary nor 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 歳入 which 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain derives from her 植民地s, 耐えるs this 割合 to the whole 歳入 of the British empire, will readily be 許すd. The monopoly, it has been supposed, indeed, by 増加するing the 私的な 歳入 of the people of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and その為に enabling them to 支払う／賃金 greater 税金s, 補償するs the 欠陥／不足 of the public 歳入 of the 植民地s. But this monopoly, I have endeavoured to show, though a very grievous 税金 upon the 植民地s, and though it may 増加する the 歳入 of a particular order of men in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, 減らすs instead of 増加するing that of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people; and その結果 減らすs instead of 増加するing the ability of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people to 支払う／賃金 税金s. The men, too, whose 歳入 the monopoly 増加するs, 構成する a particular order, which it is both 絶対 impossible to 税金 beyond the 割合 of other orders, and 極端に impolitic even to 試みる／企てる to 税金 beyond that 割合, as I shall endeavour to show in the に引き続いて 調書をとる／予約する. No particular 資源, therefore, can be drawn from this particular order.

The 植民地s may be 税金d either by their own 議会s, or by the 議会 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain.

That the 植民地 議会s can ever be so managed as to 徴収する upon their 選挙権を持つ／選挙人s a public 歳入 十分な not only to 持続する at all times their own civil and 軍の 設立, but to 支払う／賃金 their proper 割合 of the expense of the general 政府 of the British empire seems not very probable. It was a long time before even the 議会 of England, though placed すぐに under the 注目する，もくろむ of the 君主, could be brought under such a system of 管理／経営, or could be （判決などを）下すd 十分に 自由主義の in their 認めるs for supporting the civil and 軍の 設立s even of their own country. It was only by 分配するing の中で the particular Members of 議会 a 広大な／多数の／重要な part either of the offices, or of the 処分 of the offices arising from this civil and 軍の 設立, that such a system of 管理／経営 could be 設立するd even with regard to the 議会 of England. But the distance of the 植民地 議会s from the 注目する，もくろむ of the 君主, their number, their 分散させるd 状況／情勢, and their さまざまな 憲法s, would （判決などを）下す it very difficult to manage them in the same manner, even though the 君主 had the same means of doing it; and those means are wanting. It would be 絶対 impossible to 分配する の中で all the 主要な members of all the 植民地 議会s such a 株, either of the offices or of the 処分 of the offices arising from the general 政府 of the British empire, as to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる them to give up their 人気 at home, and to 税金 their 選挙権を持つ／選挙人s for the support of that general 政府, of which almost the whole emoluments were to be divided の中で people who were strangers to them. The 避けられない ignorance of 行政, besides, 関心ing the 親族 importance of the different members of those different 議会s, the offences which must frequently be given, the 失敗s which must 絶えず be committed in 試みる／企てるing to manage them in this manner, seems to （判決などを）下す such a system of 管理／経営 altogether impracticable with regard to the m.

The 植民地 議会s, besides, cannot be supposed the proper 裁判官s of what is necessary for the defence and support of the whole empire. The care of that defence and support is not ゆだねるd to them. It is not their 商売／仕事, and they have no 正規の／正選手 means of （警察などへの）密告，告訴（状） 関心ing it. The 議会 of a 州, like the vestry of a parish, may 裁判官 very 適切に 関心ing the 事件／事情／状勢s of its own particular 地区; but can have no proper means of 裁判官ing 関心ing those of the whole empire. It cannot even 裁判官 適切に 関心ing the 割合 which its own 州 耐えるs to the whole empire; or 関心ing the 親族 degree of its wealth and importance compared with the other 州s; because those other 州s are not under the 査察 and superintendency of the 議会 of a particular 州. What is necessary for the defence and support of the whole empire, and in what 割合 each part せねばならない 与える／捧げる, can be 裁判官d of only by that 議会 which 検査／視察するs and superintends the 事件／事情／状勢s of the whole empire.

It has been 提案するd, accordingly, that the 植民地s should be 税金d by requisition, the 議会 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain 決定するing the sum which each 植民地 せねばならない 支払う／賃金, and the 地方の 議会 査定する／（税金などを）課すing and 徴収するing it in the way that ふさわしい best the circumstances of the 州. What 関心d the whole empire would in this way be 決定するd by the 議会 which 検査／視察するs and superintends the 事件／事情／状勢s of the whole empire; and the 地方の 事件／事情／状勢s of each 植民地 might still be 規制するd by its own 議会. Though the 植民地s should in this 事例／患者 have no 代表者／国会議員s in the British 議会, yet, if we may 裁判官 by experience, there is no probability that the 議会の requisition would be 不当な. The 議会 of England has not upon any occasion shown the smallest disposition to overburden those parts of the empire which are not 代表するd in 議会. The islands of Guernsey and Jersey, without any means of resisting the 当局 of 議会, are more lightly 税金d than any part of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. 議会 in 試みる／企てるing to 演習 its supposed 権利, whether 井戸／弁護士席 or ill grounded, of 税金ing the 植民地s, has never hitherto 需要・要求するd of them anything which even approached to a just 割合 to what was paid by their fellow 支配するs at home. If the 出資／貢献 of the 植民地s, besides, was to rise or 落ちる in 割合 to the rise or 落ちる of the land 税金, 議会 could not 税金 them without 税金ing at the same time its own 選挙権を持つ／選挙人s, and the 植民地s might in this 事例／患者 be considered as 事実上 代表するd in 議会.

Examples are not wanting of empires in which all the different 州s are not 税金d, if I may be 許すd the 表現, in one 集まり; but in which the 君主 規制するs the sum which each 州 せねばならない 支払う／賃金, and in some 州s 査定する／（税金などを）課すs and 徴収するs it as he thinks proper; while in others, he leaves it to be 査定する／（税金などを）課すd and 徴収するd as the 各々の 明言する／公表するs of each 州 shall 決定する. In some 州s of フラン, the king not only 課すs what 税金s he thinks proper, but 査定する／（税金などを）課すs and 徴収するs them in the way he thinks proper. From others he 需要・要求するs a 確かな sum, but leaves it to the 明言する／公表するs of each 州 to 査定する／（税金などを）課す and 徴収する that sum as they think proper. によれば the 計画／陰謀 of 税金ing by requisition, the 議会 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain would stand nearly in the same 状況／情勢 に向かって the 植民地 議会s as the King of フラン does に向かって the 明言する／公表するs of those 州s which still enjoy the 特権 of having 明言する／公表するs of their own, the 州s of フラン which are supposed to be the best 治める／統治するd.

But though, によれば this 計画／陰謀, the 植民地s could have no just 推論する／理由 to 恐れる that their 株 of the public 重荷（を負わせる）s should ever 越える the proper 割合 to that of their fellow-国民s at home; 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain might have just 推論する／理由 to 恐れる that it never would 量 to that proper 割合. The 議会 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain has not for some time past had the same 設立するd 当局 in the 植民地s, which the French king has in those 州s of フラン which still enjoy the 特権 of having 明言する／公表するs of their own. The 植民地 議会s, if they were not very favourably 性質の／したい気がして (and unless more skilfully managed than they ever have been hitherto, they are not very likely to be so) might still find many pretences for 避けるing or 拒絶するing the most reasonable requisitions of 議会. A French war breaks out, we shall suppose; ten millions must すぐに be raised ーするために defend the seat of the empire. This sum must be borrowed upon the credit of some 議会の 基金 mortgaged for 支払う／賃金ing the 利益／興味. Part of this 基金 議会 提案するs to raise by a 税金 to be 徴収するd in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and part of it by a requisition to all the different 植民地 議会s of America and the West Indies. Would people readily 前進する their money upon the credit of a 基金, which partly depended upon the good humour of all those 議会s, far distant from the seat of the war, and いつかs, perhaps, thinking themselves not much 関心d in the event of it? Upon such a 基金 no more money would probably be 前進するd than what the 税金 to be 徴収するd in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain might be supposed to answer for. The whole 重荷（を負わせる） of the 負債 契約d on account of the war would in this manner 落ちる, as it always has done hitherto, upon 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain; upon a part of the empire, and not upon the whole empire. 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain is, perhaps, since the world began, the only 明言する／公表する which, as it has 延長するd its empire, has only 増加するd its expense without once augmenting its 資源s. Other 明言する／公表するs have 一般に disburdened themselve s upon their 支配する and subordinate 州s of the most かなりの part of the expense of defending the empire. 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain has hitherto 苦しむd her 支配する and subordinate 州s to disburden themselves upon her of almost this whole expense. ーするために put 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain upon a 地盤 of equality with her own 植民地s, which the 法律 has hitherto supposed to be 支配する and subordinate, it seems necessary, upon the 計画／陰謀 of 税金ing them by 議会の requisition, that 議会 should have some means of （判決などを）下すing its requisitions すぐに effectual, in 事例／患者 the 植民地 議会s should 試みる／企てる to 避ける or 拒絶する them; and what those means are, it is not very 平易な to conceive, and it has not yet been explained.

Should the 議会 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, at the same time, be ever fully 設立するd in the 権利 of 税金ing the 植民地s, even 独立した・無所属 of the 同意 of their own 議会s, the importance of those 議会s would from that moment be at an end, and with it, that of all the 主要な men of British America. Men 願望（する） to have some 株 in the 管理／経営 of public 事件／事情／状勢s 主として on account of the importance which it gives them. Upon the 力／強力にする which the greater part of the 主要な men, the natural aristocracy of every country, have of 保存するing or defending their 各々の importance, depends the 安定 and duration of every system of 解放する／自由な 政府. In the attacks which those 主要な men are continually making upon the importance of one another, and in the defence of their own, consists the whole play of 国内の 派閥 and ambition. The 主要な men of America, like those of all other countries, 願望（する） to 保存する their own importance. They feel, or imagine, that if their 議会s, which they are fond of calling 議会s, and of considering as equal in 当局 to the 議会 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, should be so far degraded as to become the humble 大臣s and (n)役員／(a)執行力のある officers of that 議会, the greater part of their own importance would be at end. They have 拒絶するd, therefore, the 提案 of 存在 税金d by 議会の requisition, and like other ambitious and high-spirited men, have rather chosen to draw the sword in defence of their own importance.

に向かって the declension of the Roman 共和国, the 同盟（する）s of Rome, who had borne the 主要な／長／主犯 重荷（を負わせる） of defending the 明言する／公表する and 延長するing the empire, 需要・要求するd to be 認める to all the 特権s of Roman 国民s. Upon 存在 辞退するd, the social war broke out. During the course of that war, Rome 認めるd those 特権s to the greater part of them one by one, and in 割合 as they detached themselves from the general confederacy. The 議会 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain 主張するs upon 税金ing the 植民地s; and they 辞退する to be 税金d by a 議会 in which they are not 代表するd. If to each 植民地, which should detach itself from the general confederacy, 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain should 許す such a number of 代表者／国会議員s as ふさわしい the 割合 of what is 与える／捧げるd to the public 歳入 of the empire, in consequence of its 存在 支配するd to the same 税金s, and in 補償（金） 認める to the same freedom of 貿易（する） with its fellow-支配するs at home; the number of its 代表者／国会議員s to be augmented as the 割合 of its 出資／貢献 might afterwards augment; a new method of acquiring importance, a new and more dazzling 反対する of ambition would be 現在のd to the 主要な men of each 植民地. Instead of piddling for the little prizes which are to be 設立する in what may be called the paltry raffle of 植民地 派閥; they might then hope, from the presumption which men 自然に have in their own ability and good fortune, to draw some of the 広大な／多数の／重要な prizes which いつかs come from the wheel of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 明言する／公表する 宝くじ of British polities. Unless this or some other method is fallen upon, and there seems to be 非，不，無 more obvious than this, of 保存するing the importance and of gratifying the ambition of the 主要な men of America, it is not very probable that they will ever 任意に 服従させる／提出する to us; and we せねばならない consider that the 血 which must be shed in 軍隊ing them to do so is, every 減少（する） of it, 血 either of those who are, or of those whom we wish to have for our fellow 国民s. They are very weak who flatter themselves that, in the 明言する／公表する to which things have come, our 植民地s will be easily 征服する／打ち勝つd by 軍隊 alone. The persons who now 治める／統治する the 決意／決議s of what they call their 大陸の 議会, feel in themselves at this moment a degree of importance which, perhaps, the greatest 支配するs in Europe 不十分な feel. From shopkeepers, tradesmen, and attornies, they are become statesmen and 立法議員s, and are 雇うd in contriving a new form of 政府 for an 広範囲にわたる empire, which, they flatter themselves, will become, and which, indeed, seems very likely to become, one of the greatest and most formidable that ever was in the world. Five hundred different people, perhaps, who in different ways 行為／法令／行動する すぐに under the 大陸の 議会; and five hundred thousand, perhaps, who 行為／法令／行動する under those five hundred, all feel in the same manner a proportionable rise in their own importance. Almost every individual of the 治める／統治するing party in America fills, at 現在の in his own fancy, a 駅／配置する superior, not only to what he had ever filled before, but to what he had ever 推定する／予想するd to fill; and unless some new 反対する of ambition is 現在のd either to him or to his leaders, if he has the ordinary spirit of a man, he will die in defence of that 駅／配置する.

It is a 発言／述べる of the 大統領，／社長 Henaut, that we now read with 楽しみ the account of many little 処理／取引s of the Ligue, which when they happened were not perhaps considered as very important pieces of news. But every man then, says he, fancied himself of some importance; and the innumerable memoirs which have come 負かす／撃墜する to us from those times, were, the greater part of them, written by people who took 楽しみ in 記録，記録的な／記録するing and magnifying events in which, they flattered themselves, they had been かなりの actors. How obstinately the city of Paris upon that occasion defended itself, what a dreadful 飢饉 it supported rather than 服従させる／提出する to the best and afterwards to the most beloved of all the French kings, is 井戸／弁護士席 known. The greater part of the 国民s, or those who 治める／統治するd the greater part of them, fought in defence of their own importance, which they foresaw was to be at an end whenever the 古代の 政府 should be re-設立するd. Our 植民地s, unless they can be induced to 同意 to a union, are very likely to defend themselves against the best of all mother countries as obstinately as the city of Paris did against one of the best of kings.

The idea of 代表 was unknown in 古代の times. When the people of one 明言する／公表する were 認める to the 権利 of 市民権 in another, they had no other means of 演習ing that 権利 but by coming in a 団体／死体 to 投票（する） and 審議する／熟考する with the people of that other 明言する／公表する. The admission of the greater part of the inhabitants of Italy to the 特権s of Roman 国民s 完全に 廃虚d the Roman 共和国. It was no longer possible to distinguish between who was and who was not a Roman 国民. No tribe could know its own members. A 群衆 of any 肉親，親類d could be introduced into the 議会s of the people, could 運動 out the real 国民s, and decide upon the 事件／事情／状勢s of the 共和国 as if they themselves had been such. But though America were to send fifty or sixty new 代表者／国会議員s to 議会, the doorkeeper of the House of ありふれたs could not find any 広大な／多数の／重要な difficulty in distinguishing between who was and who was not a member. Though the Roman 憲法, therefore, was やむを得ず 廃虚d by the union of Rome with the 連合した 明言する／公表するs of Italy, there is not the least probability that the British 憲法 would be 傷つける by the union of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain with her 植民地s. That 憲法, on the contrary, would be 完全にするd by it, and seems to be imperfect without it. The 議会 which 審議する／熟考するs and decides 関心ing the 事件／事情／状勢s of every part of the empire, ーするために be 適切に 知らせるd, ought certainly to have 代表者／国会議員s from every part of it That this union, however, could be easily effectuated, or that difficulties and 広大な／多数の／重要な difficulties might not occur in the 死刑執行, I do not pretend. I have yet heard of 非，不，無, however, which appear insurmountable. The 主要な／長／主犯 perhaps arise, not from the nature of things, but from the prejudices and opinions of the people both on this and on the other 味方する of the 大西洋.

We, on this 味方する of the water, are afraid lest the multitude of American 代表者／国会議員s should overturn the balance of the 憲法, and 増加する too much either the 影響（力） of the 栄冠を与える on the one 手渡す, or the 軍隊 of the 僕主主義 on the other. But if the number of American 代表者／国会議員s were to be in 割合 to the produce of American 課税, the number of people to be managed would 増加する 正確に／まさに in 割合 to the means of managing them; and the means of managing to the number of people to be managed. The monarchical and democratical parts of the 憲法 would, after the union, stand 正確に／まさに in the same degree of 親族 軍隊 with regard to one another as they had done before.

The people on the other 味方する of the water are afraid lest their distance from the seat of 政府 might expose them to many 圧迫s. But their 代表者／国会議員s in 議会, of which the number ought from the first to be かなりの, would easily be able to 保護する them from all 圧迫. The distance could not much 弱める the dependency of the 代表者／国会議員 upon the 選挙権を持つ／選挙人, and the former would still feel that he 借りがあるd his seat in 議会, and all the consequences which he derived from it, to the good will of the latter. It would be the 利益／興味 of the former, therefore, to cultivate that good will by complaining, with all the 当局 of a member of the 立法機関, of every 乱暴／暴力を加える which any civil or 軍の officer might be 有罪の of in those remote parts of the empire. The distance of America from the seat of 政府, besides, the natives of that country might flatter themselves, with some 外見 of 推論する／理由 too, would not be of very long continuance. Such has hitherto been the 早い 進歩 of that country in wealth, 全住民, and 改良, that in the course of little more than a century, perhaps, the produce of American might 越える that of British 課税. The seat of the empire would then 自然に 除去する itself to that part of the empire which 与える／捧げるd most to the general defence and support of the whole.

The 発見 of America, and that of a passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, are the two greatest and most important events 記録，記録的な／記録するd in the history of mankind. Their consequences have already been very 広大な／多数の／重要な; but, in the short period of between two and three centuries which has elapsed since these 発見s were made, it is impossible that the whole extent of their consequences can have been seen. What 利益s or what misfortunes to mankind may hereafter result from those 広大な／多数の／重要な events, no human 知恵 can 予知する. By 部隊ing, in some 手段, the most distant parts of the world, by enabling them to relieve one another's wants, to 増加する one another's enjoyments, and to encourage one another's 産業, their general 傾向 would seem to be 有益な. To the natives however, both of the East and West Indies, all the 商業の 利益s which can have resulted from those events have been sunk and lost in the dreadful misfortunes which they have occasioned. These misfortunes, however, seem to have arisen rather from 事故 than from anything in the nature of those events themselves. At the particular time when these 発見s were made, the 優越 of 軍隊 happened to be so 広大な／多数の／重要な on the 味方する of the Europeans that they were enabled to commit with impunity every sort of 不正 in those remote countries. Hereafter, perhaps, the natives of those countries may grow stronger, or those of Europe may grow 女性, and the inhabitants of all the different ４半期/4分の1s of the world may arrive at that equality of courage and 軍隊 which, by 奮起させるing 相互の 恐れる, can alone overawe the 不正 of 独立した・無所属 nations into some sort of 尊敬（する）・点 for the 権利s of one another. But nothing seems more likely to 設立する this equality of 軍隊 than that 相互の communication of knowledge and of all sorts of 改良s which an 広範囲にわたる 商業 from all countries to all countries 自然に, or rather やむを得ず, carries along with it.

In the 合間 one of the 主要な／長／主犯 影響s of those 発見s has been to raise the 商業の system to a degree of splendour and glory which it could never さもなければ have 達成するd to. It is the 反対する of that system to 濃厚にする a 広大な／多数の／重要な nation rather by 貿易（する） and 製造（する）s than by the 改良 and cultivation of land, rather by the 産業 of the towns than by that of the country. But, in consequence of those 発見s, the 商業の towns of Europe, instead of 存在 the 製造業者s and 運送／保菌者s for but a very small part of the world (that part of Europe which is washed by the 大西洋 Ocean, and the countries which 嘘（をつく） 一連の会議、交渉／完成する the Baltic and Mediterranean seas), have now become the 製造業者s for the 非常に／多数の and 栄えるing cultivators of America, and the 運送／保菌者s, and in some 尊敬（する）・点s the 製造業者s too, for almost all the different nations of Asia, Africa, and America. Two new worlds have been opened to their 産業, each of them much greater and more 広範囲にわたる than the old one, and the market of one of them growing still greater and greater every day.

The countries which 所有する the 植民地s of America, and which 貿易（する） 直接／まっすぐに to the East Indies, enjoy, indeed, the whole show and splendour of this 広大な／多数の／重要な 商業. Other countries, however, notwithstanding all the invidious 抑制s by which it is meant to 除外する them, frequently enjoy a greater 株 of the real 利益 of it. The 植民地s of Spain and Portugal, for example, give more real 激励 to the 産業 of other countries than to that of Spain and Portugal. In the 選び出す／独身 article of linen alone the 消費 of those 植民地s 量s, it is said, but I do not pretend to 令状 the 量, to more than three millions 英貨の／純銀の a year. But this 広大な／多数の／重要な 消費 is almost 完全に 供給（する）d by フラン, Flanders, Holland, and Germany. Spain and Portugal furnish but a small part of it. The 資本／首都 which 供給（する）s the 植民地s with this 広大な／多数の／重要な 量 of linen is 毎年 分配するd の中で, and furnishes a 歳入 to the inhabitants of, those other countries. The 利益（をあげる）s of it only are spent in Spain and Portugal, where they help to support the sumptuous profusion of the merchants of Cadiz and Lisbon.

Even the 規則s by which each nation endeavours to 安全な・保証する to itself the 排除的 貿易（する） of its own 植民地s are frequently more hurtful to the countries in favour of which they are 設立するd than to those against which they are 設立するd. The 不正な 圧迫 of the 産業 of other countries 落ちるs 支援する, if I may say so, upon the 長，率いるs of the 抑圧者s, and 鎮圧するs their 産業 more than it does that of those other countries. By those 規則s for example, the merchant of Hamburg must send the linen which he 運命にあるs for the American market to London, and he must bring 支援する from thence the タバコ which he 運命にあるs for the German market, because he can neither send the one 直接／まっすぐに to America nor bring 支援する the other 直接／まっすぐに from thence. By this 抑制 he is probably 強いるd to sell the one somewhat cheaper, and to sell the one somewhat cheaper, and to buy the other somewhat dearer than he さもなければ might have done; and his 利益（をあげる）s are probably somewhat abridged by means of it. In this 貿易（する）, however, between Hamburg and London, he certainly receives the returns of his 資本／首都 much more quickly than he could かもしれない have done in the direct 貿易（する） to America, even though we should suppose, what is by no means the 事例／患者, that the 支払い（額）s of America were as punctual as those of London. In the 貿易（する）, therefore, to which those 規則s 限定する the merchant of Hamburg, his 資本／首都 can keep in constant 雇用 a much greater 量 of German 産業 than it かもしれない could have done in the 貿易（する） from which he is 除外するd. Though the one 雇用, therefore, may to him perhaps be いっそう少なく profitable than the other, it cannot be いっそう少なく advantageous to his country. It is やめる さもなければ with the 雇用 into which the monopoly 自然に attracts, if I may say so, the 資本／首都 of the London merchant. That 雇用 may, perhaps, be more profitable to him than the greater part of other 雇用s, but, on account of the slowness of the returns, it cannot be more advantageous to his country.

After all the 不正な 試みる／企てるs, therefore, of every country in Europe to engross to itself the whole advantage of the 貿易（する） of its own 植民地s, no country has yet been able to engross itself anything but the expense of supporting in time of peace and of defending in time of war the oppressive 当局 which it assumes over them. The inconveniencies resulting from the 所有／入手 of its 植民地s, every country has engrossed to itself 完全に. The advantages resulting from their 貿易（する） it has been 強いるd to 株 with many other countries.

At first sight, no 疑問, the monopoly of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 商業 of America 自然に seems to be an 取得／買収 of the highest value. To the undiscerning 注目する，もくろむ of giddy ambition, it 自然に 現在のs itself まっただ中に the 混乱させるd 緊急発進する of politics and war as a very dazzling 反対する to fight for. The dazzling splendour of the 反対する, however, the 巨大な greatness of the 商業, is the very 質 which （判決などを）下すs the monopoly of it hurtful, or which makes one 雇用, in its own nature やむを得ず いっそう少なく advantageous to the country than the greater part of other 雇用s, 吸収する a much greater 割合 of the 資本／首都 of the country than what would さもなければ have gone to it.

The 商業の 在庫／株 of every country, it has been shown in the second 調書をとる／予約する, 自然に 捜し出すs, if one may say so, the 雇用 most advantageous to that country. If it is 雇うd in the carrying 貿易（する）, the country to which it belongs becomes the emporium of the goods of all the countries whose 貿易（する） that 在庫／株 carries on. But the owner of that 在庫／株 やむを得ず wishes to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of as 広大な／多数の／重要な a part of those goods as he can at home. He その為に saves himself the trouble, 危険, and expense of exportation, and he will upon that account be glad to sell them at home, not only for a much smaller price, but with somewhat a smaller 利益（をあげる） than he might 推定する／予想する to make by sending them abroad. He 自然に, therefore, endeavours as much as he can to turn his carrying 貿易（する） into a foreign 貿易（する） of 消費. If his 在庫／株, again, is 雇うd in a foreign 貿易（する） of 消費, he will, for the same 推論する／理由, be glad to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of at home as 広大な／多数の／重要な a part as he can of the home goods, which he collects ーするために 輸出（する） to some foreign market, and he will thus endeavour, as much as he can, to turn his foreign 貿易（する） of 消費 into a home 貿易（する）. The 商業の 在庫／株 of every country 自然に 法廷，裁判所s in this manner the 近づく, and shuns the distant 雇用; 自然に 法廷，裁判所s the 雇用 in which the returns are たびたび（訪れる）, and shuns that in which they are distant and slow; 自然に 法廷，裁判所s the 雇用 in which it can 持続する the greatest 量 of 生産力のある 労働 in the country to which it belongs, or in which its owner resides, and shuns that in which it can 持続する there the smallest 量. It 自然に 法廷，裁判所s the 雇用 which in ordinary 事例／患者s is most advantageous, and shuns that which in ordinary 事例／患者s is least advantageous to that country.

But if in any of those distant 雇用s, which in ordinary 事例／患者s are いっそう少なく advantageous to the country, the 利益（をあげる） should happen to rise somewhat higher than what is 十分な to balance the natural preference which is given to nearer 雇用s, this 優越 of 利益（をあげる） will draw 在庫／株 from those nearer 雇用s, till the 利益（をあげる）s of all return to their proper level. This 優越 of 利益（をあげる）, however, is a proof that, in the actual circumstances of the society, those distant 雇用s are somewhat understocked in 割合 to other 雇用s, and that the 在庫／株 of the society is not 分配するd in the properest manner の中で all the different 雇用s carried on in it. It is a proof that something is either bought cheaper or sold dearer than it せねばならない be, and that some particular class of 国民s is more or いっそう少なく 抑圧するd either by 支払う／賃金ing more or by getting いっそう少なく than what is suitable to that equality which せねばならない take place, and which 自然に does take place の中で all the different classes of them. Though the same 資本／首都 never will 持続する the same 量 of 生産力のある 労働 in a distant as in a 近づく 雇用, yet a distant 雇用 may be as necessary for the 福利事業 of the society as a 近づく one; the goods which the distant 雇用 取引，協定s in 存在 necessary, perhaps, for carrying on many of the nearer 雇用s. But if the 利益（をあげる）s of those who 取引，協定 in such goods are above their proper level, those goods will be sold dearer than they せねばならない be, or somewhat above their natural price, and all those engaged in the nearer 雇用s will be more or いっそう少なく 抑圧するd by this high price. Their 利益／興味, therefore, in this 事例／患者 要求するs that some 在庫／株 should be 孤立した from those nearer 雇用s, and turned に向かって that distant one, ーするために 減ずる its 利益（をあげる）s to their proper level, and the price of the goods which it 取引，協定s in to their natural price. In this 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 事例／患者, the public 利益／興味 要求するs that some 在庫／株 should be 孤立した from those 雇用s which in ordinary 事例／患者s are more advantageous, and turned に向かって one which in ordinary 事例／患者s is いっそう少なく advantageous to the public; and in this 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 事例／患者 the natural 利益／興味s and inclinations of men 同時に起こる／一致する as 正確に／まさに with the public 利益／興味 as in all other ordinary 事例／患者s, and lead them to 身を引く 在庫／株 from the 近づく, and to turn it に向かって the distant 雇用.

It is thus that the 私的な 利益／興味s and passions of individuals 自然に 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる them to turn their 在庫／株s に向かって the 雇用s which in ordinary 事例／患者s are most advantageous to the society. But if from this natural preference they should turn too much of it に向かって those 雇用s, the 落ちる of 利益（をあげる） in them and the rise of it in all others すぐに 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる them to alter this 欠陥のある 配当. Without any 介入 of 法律, therefore, the 私的な 利益／興味s and passions of men 自然に lead them to divide and 分配する the 在庫／株 of every society の中で all the different 雇用s carried on in it as nearly as possible in the 割合 which is most agreeable to the 利益／興味 of the whole society.

All the different 規則s of the 商業の system やむを得ず derange more or いっそう少なく this natural and most advantageous 配当 of 在庫／株. But those which 関心 the 貿易（する） to America and the East Indies derange it perhaps more than any other, because the 貿易（する） to those two 広大な／多数の／重要な continents 吸収するs a greater 量 of 在庫／株 than any two other 支店s of 貿易（する）. The 規則s, however, by which this derangement is 影響d in those two different 支店s of 貿易（する） are not altogether the same. Monopoly is the 広大な／多数の／重要な engine of both; but it is a different sort of monopoly. Monopoly of one 肉親，親類d or another, indeed, seems to be the 単独の engine of the 商業の system.

In the 貿易（する） to America every nation endeavours to engross as much as possible the whole market of its own 植民地s by 公正に／かなり 除外するing all other nations from any direct 貿易（する） to them. During the greater part of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese endeavoured to manage the 貿易（する） to the East Indies in the same manner, by （人命などを）奪う，主張するing the 単独の 権利 of sailing in the Indian seas, on account of the 長所 of having first 設立する out the road to them. The Dutch still continue to 除外する all other European nations from any direct 貿易（する） to their spice islands. Monopolies of this 肉親，親類d are evidently 設立するd against all other European nations, who are その為に not only 除外するd from a 貿易（する） to which it might be convenient for them to turn some part of their 在庫／株, but are 強いるd to buy the goods which that 貿易（する） 取引，協定s in somewhat dearer than if they could 輸入する them themselves 直接／まっすぐに from the countries which produce them.

But since the 落ちる of the 力／強力にする of Portugal, no European nation has （人命などを）奪う，主張するd the 排除的 権利 of sailing in the Indian seas, of which the 主要な／長／主犯 ports are now open to the ships of all European nations. Except in Portugal, however, and within these few years in フラン, the 貿易（する） to the East Indies has in every European country been 支配するd to an 排除的 company. Monopolies of this 肉親，親類d are 適切に 設立するd against the very nation which 築くs them. The greater part of that nation are その為に not only 除外するd from a 貿易（する） to which it might be convenient for them to turn some part of their 在庫／株, but are 強いるd to buy the goods which that 貿易（する） 取引，協定s somewhat dearer than if it was open and 解放する／自由な to all their countrymen. Since the 設立 of the English East India Company, for example, the other inhabitants of England, over and above 存在 除外するd from the 貿易（する）, must have paid in the price of the East India goods which they have 消費するd, not only for all the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 利益（をあげる）s which the company may have made upon those goods in consequence of their monopoly, but for all the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の waste which the 詐欺 and 乱用, inseparable from the 管理／経営 of the 事件／事情／状勢s of so 広大な／多数の／重要な a company, must やむを得ず have occasioned. The absurdity of this second 肉親，親類d of monopoly, therefore, is much more manifest than that of the first.

Both these 肉親，親類d of monopolies derange more or いっそう少なく the natural 配当 of the 在庫／株 of the society; but they do not always derange it in the same way.

Monopolies of the first 肉親，親類d always attract to the particular 貿易（する） in which they are 設立するd a greater 割合 of the 在庫／株 of the society than what would go to that 貿易（する） of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える.

Monopolies of the second 肉親，親類d may いつかs attract 在庫／株 に向かって the particular 貿易（する） in which they are 設立するd, and いつかs repel it from that 貿易（する） によれば different circumstances. In poor countries they 自然に attract に向かって that 貿易（する） more 在庫／株 than would さもなければ go to it. In rich countries they 自然に repel from it a good 取引，協定 of 在庫／株 which would さもなければ go to it.

Such poor countries as Sweden and Denmark, for example, would probably have never sent a 選び出す／独身 ship to the East Indies had not the 貿易（する） been 支配するd to an 排除的 company. The 設立 of such a company やむを得ず encourages adventurers. Their monopoly 安全な・保証するs them against all competitors in the home market, and they have the same chance for foreign markets with the 仲買人s of other nations. Their monopoly shows them the certainty of a 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益（をあげる） upon a かなりの 量 of goods, and the chance of a かなりの 利益（をあげる） upon a 広大な／多数の／重要な 量. Without such 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 激励, the poor 仲買人s of such poor countries would probably never have thought of hazarding their small 資本／首都s in so very distant and uncertain an adventure as the 貿易（する） to the East Indies must 自然に have appeared to them.

Such a rich country as Holland, on the contrary, would probably, in the 事例／患者 of a 自由貿易, send many more ships to the East Indies than it 現実に does. The 限られた／立憲的な 在庫／株 of the Dutch East India Company probably repels from that 貿易（する） many 広大な／多数の／重要な 商業の 資本／首都s which would さもなければ go to it. The 商業の 資本／首都 of Holland is so 広大な／多数の／重要な that it is, as it were, continually 洪水ing, いつかs into the public 基金s of foreign countries, いつかs into 貸付金s to 私的な 仲買人s and adventurers of foreign countries, いつかs into the most 一連の会議、交渉／完成する-about foreign 貿易（する）s of 消費, and いつかs into the carrying 貿易（する）. All 近づく 雇用s 存在 完全に filled up, all the 資本／首都 which can be placed in them with any tolerable 利益（をあげる） 存在 already placed in them, the 資本／首都 of Holland やむを得ず flows に向かって the most distant 雇用s. The 貿易（する） to the East Indies, if it were altogether 解放する／自由な, would probably 吸収する the greater part of this redundant 資本／首都. The East Indies 申し込む／申し出 a market for the 製造（する）s of Europe and for the gold and silver 同様に as for several other 生産／産物s of America greater and more 広範囲にわたる than both Europe and America put together.

Every derangement of the natural 配当 of 在庫／株 is やむを得ず hurtful to the society in which it takes place; whether it be by repelling from a particular 貿易（する） the 在庫／株 which would さもなければ go to it, or by attracting に向かって a particular 貿易（する） that which would not さもなければ come to it. If, without any 排除的 company, the 貿易（する） of Holland to the East Indies would be greater than it 現実に is, that country must 苦しむ a かなりの loss by part of its 資本／首都 存在 除外するd from the 雇用 most convenient for that part. And in the same manner, if, without an 排除的 company, the 貿易（する） of Sweden and Denmark to the East Indies would be いっそう少なく than it 現実に is, or, what perhaps is more probable, would not 存在する at all, those two countries must likewise 苦しむ a かなりの loss by part of their 資本／首都 存在 drawn into an 雇用 which must be more or いっそう少なく unsuitable to their 現在の circumstances. Better for them, perhaps, in their 現在の circumstances, to buy East India goods of other nations, even though they should 支払う／賃金 somewhat dearer, than to turn so 広大な／多数の／重要な a part of their small 資本／首都 to so very distant a 貿易（する）, in which the returns are so very slow, in which that 資本／首都 can 持続する so small a 量 of 生産力のある 労働 at home, where 生産力のある 労働 is so much 手配中の，お尋ね者, where so little is done, and where so much is to do.

Though without an 排除的 company, therefore, a particular country should not be able to carry on any direct 貿易（する） to the East Indies, it will not from thence follow that such a company せねばならない be 設立するd there, but only that such a country ought not in these circumstances to 貿易（する） 直接／まっすぐに to the East Indies. That such companies are not in general necessary for carrying on the East India 貿易（する） is 十分に 論証するd by the experience of the Portuguese, who enjoyed almost the whole of it for more than a century together without any 排除的 company.

No 私的な merchant, it has been said, could 井戸／弁護士席 have 資本／首都 十分な to 持続する factors and スパイ／執行官s in the different ports of the East Indies, ーするために 供給する goods for the ships which he might occasionally send thither; and yet, unless he was able to do this, the difficulty of finding a 貨物 might frequently make his ships lose the season for returning, and the expense of so long a 延期する would not only eat up the whole 利益（をあげる） of the adventure, but frequently occasion a very かなりの loss. This argument, however, if it 証明するd anything at all, would 証明する that no one 広大な／多数の／重要な 支店 of 貿易（する） could be carried on without an 排除的 company, which is contrary to the experience of all nations. There is no 広大な／多数の／重要な 支店 of 貿易（する） in which the 資本／首都 of any one 私的な merchant is 十分な for carrying on all the subordinate 支店s which must be carried on, ーするために carry on the 主要な／長／主犯 one. But when a nation is 熟した for any 広大な／多数の／重要な 支店 of 貿易（する）, some merchants 自然に turn their 資本／首都s に向かって the 主要な／長／主犯, and some に向かって the subordinate 支店s of it; and though all the different 支店s of it are in this manner carried on, yet it very seldom happens that they are all carried on by the 資本／首都 of one 私的な merchant. If a nation, therefore, is 熟した for the East India 貿易（する）, a 確かな 部分 of its 資本／首都 will 自然に divide itself の中で all the different 支店s of that 貿易（する）. Some of its merchants will find it for their 利益／興味 to reside in the East Indies, and to 雇う their 資本／首都s there in 供給するing goods for the ships which are to be sent out by other merchants who reside in Europe. The 解決／入植地s which different European nations have 得るd in the East Indies, if they were taken from the 排除的 companies to which they at 現在の belong and put under the 即座の 保護 of the 君主, would （判決などを）下す this 住居 both 安全な and 平易な, at least to the merchants of the particular nations to whom those 解決／入植地s belong. If at any particular time that part of the 資本／首都 of any country which of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える tended and inclined, if I may say so, に向かって the East India 貿易（する）, was not 十分な for carrying on all those different 支店s of it, it would be a proof that, at that particular time, that country was not 熟した for that 貿易（する）, and that it would do better to buy for some time, even at a higher price, from other European nations, the East India goods it had occasion for, than to 輸入する them itself 直接／まっすぐに from the East Indies. What it might lose by the high price of those goods could seldom be equal to the loss which it would 支える by the distraction of a large 部分 of its 資本／首都 from other 雇用s more necessary, or more useful, or more suitable to its circumstances and 状況／情勢, than a direct 貿易（する） to the East Indies.

Though the Europeans 所有する many かなりの 解決／入植地s both upon the coast of Africa and in the East Indies, they have not yet 設立するd in either of those countries such 非常に／多数の and 栄えるing 植民地s as those in the islands and continent of America. Africa, however, 同様に as several of the countries comprehended under the general 指名する of the East Indies, are 住むd by barbarous nations. But those nations were by no means so weak and defenceless as the 哀れな and helpless Americans; and in 割合 to the natural fertility of the countries which they 住むd, they were besides much more populous. The most barbarous nations either of Africa or of the East Indies were shepherds; even the Hottentots were so. But the natives of every part of America, except Mexico and Peru, were only hunters; and the difference is very 広大な／多数の／重要な between the number of shepherds and that of hunters whom the same extent of 平等に fertile 領土 can 持続する. In Africa and the East Indies, therefore, it was more difficult to 追い出す the natives, and to 延長する the European 農園s over the greater part of the lands of the 初めの inhabitants. The genius of 排除的 companies, besides, is unfavourable, it has already been 観察するd, to the growth of new 植民地s, and has probably been the 主要な／長／主犯 原因（となる） of the little 進歩 which they have made in the East Indies. The Portuguese carried on the 貿易（する） both to Africa and the East Indies without any 排除的 companies, and their 解決／入植地s at Congo, Angola, and Benguela on the coast of Africa, and at Goa in the East Indies, though much depressed by superstition and every sort of bad 政府, yet 耐える some faint resemblance to the 植民地s of America, and are partly 住むd by Portuguese who have been 設立するd there for several 世代s. The Dutch 解決／入植地s at the Cape of Good Hope and at Batavia are at 現在の the most かなりの 植民地s which the Europeans have 設立するd either in Africa or in the East Indies, and both these 解決／入植地s are pec uliarly fortunate in their 状況／情勢. The Cape of Good Hope was 住むd by a race of people almost as barbarous and やめる as incapable of defending themselves as the natives of America. It is besides the halfway house, if one may say so, between Europe and the East Indies, at which almost every European ship makes some stay, both in going and returning. The 供給（する）ing of those ships with every sort of fresh 準備／条項s, with fruit and いつかs with ワイン, affords alone a very 広範囲にわたる market for the 黒字／過剰 produce of the colonists. What the Cape of Good Hope is between Europe and every part of the East Indies, Batavia is between the 主要な／長／主犯 countries of the East Indies. It lies upon the most たびたび（訪れる）d road from Indostan to 中国 and Japan, and is nearly about 中途の upon that road. Almost all the ships, too, that sail between Europe and 中国 touch at Batavia; and it is, over and above all this, the centre and 主要な／長／主犯 市場 of what is called the country 貿易（する） of the East Indies, not only of that part of it which is carried on by Europeans, but of that which is carried on by the native Indians; and 大型船s navigated by the inhabitants of 中国 and Japan, of Tonquin, Malacca, Cochin 中国, and the island of Celebes, are frequently to be seen in its port. Such advantageous 状況／情勢s have enabled those two 植民地s to surmount all the 障害s which the oppressive genius of an 排除的 company may have occasionally …に反対するd to their growth. They have enabled Batavia to surmount the 付加 disadvantage of perhaps the most unwholesome 気候 in the world.

The English and Dutch companies, though they have 設立するd no かなりの 植民地s, except the two above について言及するd, have both made かなりの conquests in the East Indies. But in the manner in which they both 治める／統治する their new 支配するs, the natural genius of an 排除的 company has shown itself most distinctly. In the spice islands the Dutch are said to 燃やす all the spiceries which a fertile season produces beyond what they 推定する／予想する to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of in Europe with such a 利益（をあげる） as they think 十分な. In the islands where they have no 解決／入植地s, they give a 賞与金 to those who collect the young blossoms and green leaves of the clove and nutmeg trees which 自然に grow there, but which the savage 政策 has now, it is said, almost 完全に extirpated. Even in the islands where they have 解決／入植地s they have very much 減ずるd, it is said, the number of those trees. If the produce even of their own islands was much greater than what ふさわしい their market, the natives, they 嫌疑者，容疑者／疑う, might find means to 伝える some part of it to other nations; and the best way, they imagine, to 安全な・保証する their own monopoly is to take care that no more shall grow than what they themselves carry to market. By different arts of 圧迫 they have 減ずるd the 全住民 of several of the Moluccas nearly to the number which is 十分な to 供給（する） with fresh 準備／条項s and other necessaries of life their own insignificant 守備隊s, and such of their ships as occasionally come there for a 貨物 of spices. Under the 政府 even of the Portuguese, however, those islands are said to have been tolerably 井戸／弁護士席 住むd. The English company have not yet had time to 設立する in Bengal so perfectly destructive a system. The 計画（する） of their 政府, however, has had 正確に／まさに the same 傾向. It has not been uncommon, I am 井戸／弁護士席 保証するd, for the 長，指導者, that is, the first clerk of a factory, to order a 小作農民 to plough up a rich field of poppies and （種を）蒔く it with rice or some other 穀物. The pretence was, to 妨げる a scarcity of provi sions; but the real 推論する／理由, to give the 長，指導者 an 適切な時期 of selling at a better price a large 量 of あへん, which he happened then to have upon 手渡す. Upon other occasions the order has been 逆転するd; and a rich field of rice or other 穀物 has been ploughed up, ーするために make room for a 農園 of poppies; when the 長，指導者 foresaw that 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 利益（をあげる） was likely to be made by あへん. The servants of the company have upon several occasions 試みる／企てるd to 設立する in their own favour the monopoly of some of the most important 支店s, not only of the foreign, but of the inland 貿易（する） of the country. Had they been 許すd to go on, it is impossible that they should not at some time or another have 試みる／企てるd to 抑制する the 生産／産物 of the particular articles of which they had thus usurped the monopoly, not only to the 量 which they themselves could 購入（する）, but to that which they could 推定する／予想する to sell with such a 利益（をあげる） as they might think 十分な. In the course of the century or two, the 政策 of the English company would in this manner have probably 証明するd as 完全に destructive as that of the Dutch.

Nothing, however, can be more 直接／まっすぐに contrary to the real 利益／興味 of those companies, considered as the 君主s of the countries which they have 征服する／打ち勝つd, than this destructive 計画（する）. In almost all countries the 歳入 of the 君主 is drawn from that of the people. The greater the 歳入 of the people, therefore, the greater the 年次の produce of their land and 労働, the more they can afford to the 君主. It is his 利益／興味, therefore, to 増加する as much as possible that 年次の produce. But if this is the 利益／興味 of every 君主, it is peculiarly so of one whose 歳入, like that of the 君主 of Bengal, arises 主として from a land-rent. That rent must やむを得ず be in 割合 to the 量 and value of the produce, and both the one and the other must depend upon the extent of the market. The 量 will always be ふさわしい with more or いっそう少なく exactness to the 消費 of those who can afford to 支払う／賃金 for it, and the price which they will 支払う／賃金 will always be in 割合 to the 切望 of their 競争. It is the 利益／興味 of such a 君主, therefore, to open the most 広範囲にわたる market for the produce of his country, to 許す the most perfect freedom of 商業, ーするために 増加する as much as possible the number and the 競争 of 買い手s; and upon this account to 廃止する, not only all monopolies, but all 抑制s upon the transportation of the home produce from one part of the country to another, upon its exportation to foreign countries, or upon the 輸入 of goods of any 肉親，親類d for which it can be 交流d. It is in this manner most likely to 増加する both the 量 and value of that produce, and その結果 of his own 株 of it, or of his own 歳入.

But a company of merchants are, it seems, incapable of considering themselves as 君主s, even after they have become such. 貿易（する）, or buying ーするために sell again, they still consider as their 主要な／長／主犯 商売／仕事, and by a strange absurdity regard the character of the 君主 as but an 虫垂 to that of the merchant, as something which せねばならない be made subservient to it, or by means of which they may be enabled to buy cheaper in India, and その為に to sell with a better 利益（をあげる） in Europe. They endeavour for this 目的 to keep out as much as possible all competitors from the market of the countries which are 支配する to their 政府, and その結果 to 減ずる, at least, some part of the 黒字／過剰 produce of those countries to what is barely 十分な for 供給（する）ing their own 需要・要求する, or to what they can 推定する／予想する to sell in Europe with such a 利益（をあげる） as they may think reasonable. Their 商業の habits draw them in this manner, almost やむを得ず, though perhaps insensibly, to prefer upon all ordinary occasions the little and transitory 利益（をあげる） of the monopolist to the 広大な／多数の／重要な and 永久の 歳入 of the 君主, and would 徐々に lead them to 扱う／治療する the countries 支配する to their 政府 nearly as the Dutch 扱う／治療する the Moluceas. It is the 利益／興味 of the East India Company, considered as 君主s, that the European goods which are carried to their Indian dominions should be sold there as cheap as possible; and that the Indian goods which are brought from thence should bring there as good a price, or should be sold there as dear as possible. But the 逆転する of this is their 利益／興味 as merchants. As 君主s, their 利益／興味 is 正確に／まさに the same with that of the country which they 治める／統治する. As merchants their 利益／興味 is 直接／まっすぐに opposite to that 利益／興味.

But if the genius of such a 政府, even as to what 関心s its direction in Europe, is in this manner essentially and perhaps incurably 欠陥のある, that of its 行政 in India is still more so. That 行政 is やむを得ず composed of a 会議 of merchants, a profession no 疑問 極端に respectable, but which in no country in the world carries along with it that sort of 当局 which 自然に overawes the people, and without 軍隊 命令（する）s their willing obedience. Such a 会議 can 命令（する） obedience only by the 軍の 軍隊 with which they are …を伴ってd, and their 政府 is therefore やむを得ず 軍の and despotical. Their proper 商売／仕事, however, is that of merchants. It is to sell, upon their masters' account, the European goods consigned to them, and to buy in return Indian goods for the European market. It is to sell the one as dear and to buy the other as cheap as possible, and その結果 to 除外する as much as possible all 競争相手s from the particular market where they keep their shop. The genius of the 行政 therefore, so far as 関心s the 貿易（する） of the company, is the same as that of the direction. It tends to make 政府 subservient to the 利益／興味 of monopoly, and その結果 to stunt the natural growth of some parts at least of the 黒字／過剰 produce of the country to what is barely 十分な for answering the 需要・要求する of the company.

All the members of the 行政, besides, 貿易（する） more or いっそう少なく upon their own account, and it is in vain to 禁じる them from doing so. Nothing can be more 完全に foolish than to 推定する／予想する that the clerks of a 広大な／多数の／重要な counting-house at ten thousand miles distance, and その結果 almost やめる out of sight, should, upon a simple order from their masters, give up at once doing any sort of 商売／仕事 upon their own account, abandon for ever all hopes of making a fortune, of which they have the means in their 手渡すs, and content themselves with the 穏健な salaries which those masters 許す them, and which, 穏健な as they are, can seldom be augmented, 存在 一般的に as large as the real 利益（をあげる）s of the company 貿易（する） can afford. In such circumstances, to 禁じる the servants of the company from 貿易（する）ing upon their own account can have 不十分な any other 影響 than to enable the superior servants, under pretence of 遂行する／発効させるing their masters' order, to 抑圧する such of the inferior ones as have had the misfortune to 落ちる under their displeasure. The servants 自然に endeavour to 設立する the same monopoly in favour of their own 私的な 貿易（する） as of the public 貿易（する） of the company. If they are 苦しむd to 行為／法令／行動する as they could wish, they will 設立する this monopoly 率直に and 直接／まっすぐに, by 公正に／かなり 禁じるing all other people from 貿易（する）ing in the articles in which they choose to 取引，協定; and this, perhaps, is the best and least oppressive way of 設立するing it. But if by an order from Europe they are 禁じるd from doing this, they will, notwithstanding, endeavour to 設立する a monopoly of the same 肉親，親類d, 内密に and 間接に, in a way that is much more destructive to the country. They will 雇う the whole 当局 of 政府, and pervert the 行政 of 司法（官）, ーするために 悩ます and 廃虚 those who 干渉する with them in any 支店 of 商業, which by means of スパイ／執行官s, either 隠すd, or at least not 公然と avowed, they may choose to carry on. But the 私的な 貿易（する） of the servants will 自然に 延長する t o a much greater variety of articles than the public 貿易（する） of the company. The public 貿易（する） of the company 延長するs no その上の than the 貿易（する） with Europe, and comprehends a part only of the foreign 貿易（する） of the country. But the 私的な 貿易（する） of the servants may 延長する to all the different 支店s both of its inland and foreign 貿易（する）. The monopoly of the company can tend only to stunt the natural growth of that part of the 黒字／過剰 produce which, in the 事例／患者 of a 自由貿易, would be 輸出（する）d to Europe. That of the servants tends to stunt the natural growth of every part of the produce in which they choose to 取引，協定, of what is 運命にあるd for home 消費, 同様に as of what is 運命にあるd for exportation; and その結果 to degrade the cultivation of the whole country, and to 減ずる the number of its inhabitants. It tends to 減ずる the 量 of every sort of produce, even that of the necessaries of life, whenever the servants of the company choose to 取引，協定 in them, to what those servants can both afford to buy and 推定する／予想する to sell with such a 利益（をあげる） as pleases them.

From the nature of their 状況／情勢, too, the servants must be more 性質の／したい気がして to support with rigorous severity their own 利益／興味 against that of the country which they 治める／統治する than their masters can be to support theirs. The country belongs to their masters, who cannot 避ける having some regard for the 利益／興味 of what belongs to them. But it does not belong to the servants. The real 利益／興味 of their masters, if they were 有能な of understanding it, is the same with that of the country, and it is from ignorance 主として, and the meanness of 商業の prejudice, that they ever 抑圧する it. But the real 利益／興味 of the servants is by no means the same with that of the country, and the most perfect （警察などへの）密告，告訴（状） would not やむを得ず put an end to their 圧迫s. The 規則s accordingly which have been sent out from Europe, though they have been frequently weak, have upon most occasions been 井戸／弁護士席-meaning. More 知能 and perhaps いっそう少なく good-meaning has いつかs appeared in those 設立するd by the servants in India. It is a very singular 政府 in which every member of the 行政 wishes to get out of the country, and その結果 to have done with the 政府 as soon as he can, and to whose 利益／興味, the day after he has left it and carried his whole fortune with him, it is perfectly indifferent though the whole country was swallowed up by an 地震.

I mean not, however, by anything which I have here said, to throw any 嫌悪すべき imputation upon the general character of the servants of the East India Company, and much いっそう少なく upon that of any particular persons. It is the system of 政府, the 状況／情勢 in which they are placed, that I mean to 非難, not the character of those who have 行為／法令／行動するd in it. They 行為／法令／行動するd as their 状況／情勢 自然に directed, and they who have clamoured the loudest against them would probably not have 行為／法令／行動するd better themselves. In war and 交渉, the 会議s of マドラス and Calcutta have upon several occasions 行為／行うd themselves with a 決意／決議 and 決定的な 知恵 which would have done honour to the 上院 of Rome in the best days of that 共和国. The members of those 会議s, however, had been bred to professions very different from war and polities. But their 状況／情勢 alone, without education, experience, or even example, seems to have formed in them all at once the 広大な／多数の／重要な 質s which it 要求するd, and to have 奮起させるd them both with abilities and virtues which they themselves could not 井戸／弁護士席 know that they 所有するd. If upon some occasions, therefore, it has animated them to 活動／戦闘s of magnanimity which could not 井戸／弁護士席 have been 推定する／予想するd from them, we should not wonder if upon others it has 誘発するd them to 偉業／利用するs of somewhat a different nature.

Such 排除的 companies, therefore, are nuisances in every 尊敬（する）・点; always more or いっそう少なく inconvenient to the countries in which they are 設立するd, and destructive to those which have the misfortune to 落ちる under their 政府.

一時期／支部 VIII
結論 of the 商業の System

The 輸入 of the 構成要素s of 製造（する） has いつかs been encouraged by an 控除 from the 義務s to which other goods are 支配する, and いつかs by bounties.

The 輸入 of sheep's wool from several different countries, of cotton wool from all countries, of undressed flax, of the greater part of dyeing 麻薬s, of the greater part of undressed hides from Ireland or the British 植民地s, of sealskins from the British Greenland 漁業, of pig and 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業 アイロンをかける from the British 植民地s, 同様に as of several other 構成要素s of 製造（する）, has been encouraged by an 控除 from all 義務s, if 適切に entered at the custom house. The 私的な 利益／興味 of our merchants and 製造業者s may, perhaps, have だまし取るd from the 立法機関 these 控除s 同様に as the greater part of our other 商業の 規則s. They are, however, perfectly just and reasonable, and if, 終始一貫して with the necessities of the 明言する／公表する, they could be 延長するd to all the other 構成要素s of 製造（する）, the public would certainly be a gainer.

The avidity of our 広大な／多数の／重要な 製造業者s, however, has in some 事例／患者s 延長するd these 控除s a good 取引，協定 beyond what can 正確に，正当に be considered as the rude 構成要素s of their work. By the 24th George III, c. 46, a small 義務 of only one penny the 続けざまに猛撃する was 課すd upon the 輸入 of foreign brown linen yam, instead of much higher 義務s to which it had been 支配するd before, viz. of sixpence the 続けざまに猛撃する upon sail yarn, of one shilling the 続けざまに猛撃する upon all French and Dutch yarn, and of two 続けざまに猛撃するs thirteen shillings and fourpence upon the hundredweight of all spruce or Muscovia yarn. But our 製造業者s were not long 満足させるd with this 削減. By the 29th of the same king, c. 15, the same 法律 which gave a bounty upon the exportation of British and Irish linen of which the price did not 越える eighteenpence the yard, even this small 義務 upon the 輸入 of brown linen yarn was taken away. In the different 操作／手術s, however, which are necessary for the 準備 of linen yarn, a good 取引，協定 more 産業 is 雇うd than in the その後の 操作／手術 of 準備するing linen cloth from linen yarn. To say nothing of the 産業 of the flax-growers and flax-dressers, three or four spinners, at least, are necessary ーするために keep one weaver in constant 雇用; and more than four-fifths of the whole 量 of 労働 necessary for the 準備 of linen cloth is 雇うd in that of linen yarn; but our spinners are poor people, women 一般的に scattered about in all different parts of the country, without support or 保護. It is not by the sale of their work, but by that of the 完全にする work of the weavers, that our 広大な／多数の／重要な master 製造業者s make their 利益（をあげる）s. As it is their 利益／興味 to sell the 完全にする 製造（する） as dear, so is it to buy the 構成要素s as cheap as possible. By だまし取るing from the 立法機関 bounties upon the exportation of their own linen, high 義務s upon the 輸入 of all foreign linen, and a total 禁止 of the home 消費 of some sorts of French linen, they endeav our to sell their own goods as dear as possible. By encouraging the 輸入 of foreign linen yarn, and その為に bringing it into 競争 with that which is made by our own people, they endeavour to buy the work of the poor spinners as cheap as possible. They are as 意図 to keep 負かす／撃墜する the 給料 of their own weavers as the 収入s of the poor spinners, and it is by no means for the 利益 of the workman that they endeavour either to raise the price of the 完全にする work or to lower that of the rude 構成要素s. It is the 産業 which is carried on for the 利益 of the rich and the powerful that is principally encouraged by our 商業の system. That which is carried on for the 利益 of the poor and the indigent is too often either neglected or 抑圧するd.

Both the bounty upon the exportation of linen, and the 控除 from 義務 upon the 輸入 of foreign yarn, which were 認めるd only for fifteen years, but continued by two different prolongations, 満了する／死ぬ with the end of the 開会／開廷／会期 of 議会 which shall すぐに follow the 24th of June 1786.

The 激励 given to the 輸入 of the 構成要素s of 製造（する） by bounties has been principally 限定するd to such as were 輸入するd from our American 農園s.

The first bounties of this 肉親，親類d were those 認めるd about the beginning of the 現在の century upon the 輸入 of 海軍の 蓄える／店s from America. Under this denomination were comprehended 木材／素質 fit for masts, yards, and bowsprits; hemp; tar, pitch, and turpentine. The bounty, however, of one 続けざまに猛撃する the トン upon masting-木材／素質, and that of six 続けざまに猛撃するs the トン upon hemp, were 延長するd to such as should be 輸入するd into England from Scotland. Both these bounties continued without any variation, at the same 率, till they were severally 許すd to 満了する／死ぬ; that upon hemp on the 1st of January 1741, and that upon masting-木材／素質 at the end of the 開会／開廷／会期 of 議会 すぐに に引き続いて the 24th June 1781.

The bounties upon the 輸入 of tar, pitch, and turpentine underwent, during their continuance, several alterations. 初めは that upon tar was four 続けざまに猛撃するs the トン; that upon pitch the same; and that upon turpentine, three 続けざまに猛撃するs the トン. The bounty of four 続けざまに猛撃するs the トン upon tar was afterwards 限定するd to such as had been 用意が出来ている in a particular manner; that upon other good, clean, and merchantable tar was 減ずるd to two 続けざまに猛撃するs four shillings the トン. The bounty upon pitch was likewise 減ずるd to one 続けざまに猛撃する; and that upon turpentine to one 続けざまに猛撃する ten shillings the トン.

The second bounty upon the 輸入 of any of the 構成要素s of 製造（する）, によれば the order of time, was that 認めるd by the 21st George II, c. 30, upon the 輸入 of indigo from the British 農園s. When the 農園 indigo was 価値（がある） three-fourths of the price of the best French indigo, it was by this 行為／法令／行動する する権利を与えるd to a bounty of sixpence the 続けざまに猛撃する. This bounty, which, like most others, was 認めるd only for a 限られた／立憲的な time, was continued by several prolongations, but was 減ずるd to fourpence the 続けざまに猛撃する. It was 許すd to 満了する／死ぬ with the end of the 開会／開廷／会期 of 議会 which followed the 25th March 1781.

The third bounty of this 肉親，親類d was that 認めるd (much about the time that we were beginning いつかs to 法廷，裁判所 and いつかs to quarrel with our American 植民地s) by the 4th George III, c. 26, upon the 輸入 of hemp, or undressed flax, from the British 農園s. This bounty was 認めるd for twenty-one years, from the 24th June 1764 to the 24th June 1785. For the first seven years it was to be at the 率 of eight 続けざまに猛撃するs the トン, for the second at six 続けざまに猛撃するs, and for the third at four 続けざまに猛撃するs. It was not 延長するd to Scotland, of which the 気候 (although hemp is いつかs raised there in small 量s and of an inferior 質) is not very fit for that produce. Such a bounty upon the 輸入 of Scotch flax into England would have been too 広大な／多数の／重要な a discouragement to the native produce of the southern part of the 部隊d Kingdom.

The fourth bounty of this 肉親，親類d was that 認めるd by the 5th George III, c. 45, upon the 輸入 of 支持を得ようと努めるd from America. It was 認めるd for nine years, from the 1st January 1766 to the 1st January 1775. During the first three years, it was to be for every hundred and twenty good 取引，協定s, at the 率 of one 続けざまに猛撃する, and for every 負担 含む／封じ込めるing fifty 立方（体）の feet of other squared 木材／素質 at the 率 of twelve shillings. For the second three years, it was for 取引，協定s to be at. the 率 of fifteen shillings, and for other squared 木材／素質 at the 率 of eight shillings; and for the third three years, it was for 取引，協定s to be at the 率 of ten shillings, and for other squared 木材／素質 at the 率 of five shillings.

The fifth bounty of this 肉親，親類d was that 認めるd by the 9th George III, c. 38, upon the 輸入 of raw silk from the British 農園s. It was 認めるd for twenty-one years, from the 1st January 1770 to the 1st January 1791. For the first seven years it was to be at the 率 of twenty-five 続けざまに猛撃するs for every hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs value; for the second at twenty 続けざまに猛撃するs; and for the third at fifteen 続けざまに猛撃するs. The 管理／経営 of the silk worm, and the 準備 of silk, 要求するs so much 手渡す 労働, and 労働 is so very dear in America that even this 広大な／多数の／重要な bounty, I have been 知らせるd, was not likely to produce any かなりの 影響.

The sixth bounty of this 肉親，親類d was that 認めるd by 2nd George III, c. 50, for the 輸入 of 麻薬を吸う, hogshead, and バーレル／樽 突き破るs and 長，率いるing from the British 農園s. It was 認めるd for nine years, from 1st January 1772 to the 1st January 1781. For the first three years it was for a 確かな 量 of each to be at the 率 of six 続けざまに猛撃するs; for the second three years at four 続けざまに猛撃するs; and for the third three years at two 続けざまに猛撃するs.

The seventh and last bounty of this 肉親，親類d was that 認めるd by the 19th George III, c. 37, upon the 輸入 of hemp from Ireland. It was 認めるd in the same manner as that for the 輸入 of hemp and undressed flax from America, for twenty-one years, from the 24th June 1779 to the 24th June 1800. This 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 is divided, likewise, into three periods of seven years each; and in each of those periods the 率 of the Irish bounty is the same with that of the American. It does not, however, like the American bounty, 延長する to the 輸入 of undressed flax. It would have been too 広大な／多数の／重要な a discouragement to the cultivation of that 工場／植物 in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. When this last bounty was 認めるd, the British and Irish 立法機関s were not in much better humour with one another than the British and American had been before. But this boon to Ireland, it is to be hoped, has been 認めるd under more fortunate 後援 than all those to America.

The same 商品／必需品s upon which we thus gave bounties when 輸入するd from America were 支配するd to かなりの 義務s when 輸入するd from any other country. The 利益／興味 of our American 植民地s was regarded as the same with that of the mother country. Their wealth was considered as our wealth. Whatever money was sent out to them, it was said, （機の）カム all 支援する to us by the balance of 貿易（する）, and we could never become a farthing the poorer by any expense which we could lay out upon them. They were our own in every 尊敬（する）・点, and it was an expense laid out upon the 改良 of our own 所有物／資産／財産 and for the profitable 雇用 of our own people. It is unnecessary, I apprehend, at 現在の to say anything その上の ーするために expose the folly of a system which 致命的な experience has now 十分に exposed. Had our American 植民地s really been a part of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, those bounties might have been considered as bounties upon 生産／産物, and would still have been liable to all the 反対s to which such bounties are liable, but to no other.

The exportation of the 構成要素s of 製造（する） is いつかs discouraged by 絶対の 禁止s, and いつかs by high 義務s.

Our woollen 製造業者s have been more successful than any other class of workmen in 説得するing the 立法機関 that the 繁栄 of the nation depended upon the success and 拡張 of their particular 商売／仕事. They have not only 得るd a monopoly against the 消費者s by an 絶対の 禁止 of 輸入するing woollen cloths from any foreign country, but they have likewise 得るd another monopoly against the sheep 農業者s and growers of wool by a 類似の 禁止 of the exportation of live sheep and wool. The severity of many of the 法律s which have been 制定するd for the 安全 of the 歳入 is very 正確に，正当に complained of, as 課すing 激しい 刑罰，罰則s upon 活動／戦闘s which, antecedent to the 法令s that 宣言するd them to be 罪，犯罪s, had always been understood to be innocent. But the cruellest of our 歳入 法律s, I will 投機・賭ける to 断言する, are 穏やかな and gentle in comparison of some of those which the clamour of our merchants and 製造業者s has だまし取るd from the 立法機関 for the support of their own absurd and oppressive monopolies. Like the 法律s of Draco, these 法律s may be said to be all written in 血.

By the 8th of Elizabeth, c. 3, the 輸出業者 of sheep, lambs, or 押し通すs was for the first offence to 没収される all his goods for ever, to 苦しむ a year's 監禁，拘置, and then to have his left 手渡す 削減（する） off in a market town upon a market day, to be there nailed up; and for the second offence to be adjudged a felon, and to 苦しむ death accordingly. To 妨げる the 産む／飼育する of our sheep from 存在 propagated in foreign countries seems to have been the 反対する of this 法律. By the 13th and 14th of Charles II, c. 18, the exportation of wool was made 重罪, and the 輸出業者 支配するd to the same 刑罰，罰則s and 没収s as a felon.

For the honour of the 国家の humanity, it is to be hoped that neither of these 法令s were ever 遂行する／発効させるd. The first of them, however; so far as I know, has never been 直接／まっすぐに 廃止するd, and Serjeant Hawkins seems to consider it as still in 軍隊. It may however, perhaps, be considered as 事実上 廃止するd by the 12th of Charles II, c. 32, sect. 3, which, without expressly taking away the 刑罰，罰則s 課すd by former 法令s, 課すs a new 刑罰，罰則, viz., that of twenty shillings for every sheep 輸出（する）d, or 試みる／企てるd to be 輸出（する）d, together with the 没収 of the sheep and of the owner's 株 of the ship. The second of them was expressly 廃止するd by the 7th and 8th of William III, c. 28, sect. 4. By which it is 宣言するd that, "反して the 法令 of the 13th and 14th of King Charles II, made against the exportation of wool, の中で other things in the said 行為／法令／行動する について言及するd, doth 制定する the same to be みなすd 重罪; by the severity of which 刑罰，罰則 the 起訴 of 違反者／犯罪者s hath not been so effectually put in 死刑執行: Be it, therefore, 制定するd by the 当局 aforesaid, that so much of the said 行為／法令／行動する, which relates to the making the said offence 重罪, be 廃止するd and made 無効の."

The 刑罰，罰則s, however, which are either 課すd by this milder 法令, or which, though 課すd by former 法令s, are not 廃止するd by this one, are still 十分に 厳しい. Besides the 没収 of the goods, the 輸出業者 背負い込むs the 刑罰，罰則 of three shillings for every 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる of wool either 輸出（する）d or 試みる／企てるd to be 輸出（する）d, that is about four or five times the value. Any merchant or other person 罪人／有罪を宣告するd of this offence is 無能にするd from 要求するing any 負債 or account belonging to him from any factor or other person. Let his fortune be what it will, whether he is or is not able to 支払う／賃金 those 激しい 刑罰，罰則s, the 法律 means to 廃虚 him 完全に. But as the morals of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people are not yet so corrupt as those of the contrivers of this 法令, I have not heard that any advantage has ever been taken of this 条項. If the person 罪人／有罪を宣告するd of this offence is not able to 支払う／賃金 the 刑罰，罰則s within three months after judgment, he is to be 輸送（する）d for seven years, and if he returns before the 満期 of that 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語, he is liable to the 苦痛s of 重罪, without 利益 of clergy. The owner of the ship, knowing this offence, 没収されるs all his 利益／興味 in the ship and furniture. The master and 水夫s, knowing this offence, 没収される all their goods and chattels, and 苦しむ three months' 監禁，拘置. By a その後の 法令 the master 苦しむs six months' 監禁，拘置.

ーするために 妨げる exportation, the whole inland 商業 of wool is laid under very burdensome and oppressive 制限s. It cannot be packed in any box, バーレル／樽, 樽, 事例／患者, chest, or any other 一括, but only in packs of leather or pack-cloth, on which must be 示すd on the outside the words wool or yam, in large letters not いっそう少なく than three インチs long, on 苦痛 of 没収されるing the same and the 一括, and three shillings for every 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる, to be paid by the owner or packer. It cannot be loaden on any horse or cart, or carried by land within five miles of the coast, but between sun-rising and sun-setting, on 苦痛 of 没収されるing the same, the horses and carriages. The hundred next 隣接するing to the sea-coast, out of or through which the wool is carried or 輸出（する）d, 没収されるs twenty 続けざまに猛撃するs, if the wool is under the value of ten 続けざまに猛撃するs; and if of greater value, then treble that value, together with treble costs, to be 告訴するd for within the year. The 死刑執行 to be against any two of the inhabitants, whom the 開会／開廷／会期s must reimburse, by an 査定／評価 on the other inhabitants, as in the 事例／患者s of 強盗. And if any person 構内／化合物s with the hundred for いっそう少なく than this 刑罰，罰則, he is to be 拘留するd for five years; and any other person may 起訴する. These 規則s take place through the whole kingdom.

But in the particular 郡s of Kent and Sussex, the 制限s are still more troublesome. Every owner of wool within ten miles of the sea-coast must given an account in 令状ing, three days after shearing to the next officer of the customs, of the number of his fleeces, and of the places where they are 宿泊するd. And before he 除去するs any part of them he must give the like notice of the number and 負わせる of the fleeces, and of the 指名する and abode of the person to whom they are sold, and of the place to which it is ーするつもりであるd they should be carried. No person within fifteen miles of the sea, in the said 郡s, can buy any wool before he enters into 社債 to the king that no part of the wool which he shall so buy shall be sold by him to any other person within fifteen miles of the sea. If any wool is 設立する carrying に向かって the sea-味方する in the said 郡s, unless it has been entered and 安全 given as aforesaid, it is 没収されるd, and the 違反者／犯罪者 also 没収されるs three shillings for every 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる. If any person lays any wool not entered as aforesaid within fifteen miles of the sea, it must be 掴むd and 没収されるd; and if, after such seizure, any person （人命などを）奪う，主張する the same, he must give 安全 to the 国庫 that if he is cast upon 裁判，公判 he shall 支払う／賃金 treble costs, besides all other 刑罰，罰則s.

When such 制限s are 課すd upon the inland 貿易（する）, the coasting 貿易（する）, we may believe, cannot be left very 解放する／自由な. Every owner of wool who carries or 原因（となる）s to be carried any wool to any port or place on the seacoast, ーするために be from thence 輸送（する）d by sea to any other place or port on the coast, must first 原因（となる） an 入ること／参加（者） thereof to be made at the port from whence it is ーするつもりであるd to be 伝えるd, 含む／封じ込めるing the 負わせる, 示すs, and number of the 一括s, before he brings the same within five miles of that port, on 苦痛 of 没収されるing the same, and also the horses, carts, and other carriages; and also of 苦しむing and 没収されるing as by the other 法律s in 軍隊 against the exportation of wool. This 法律, however (1st William III, c. 32), is so very indulgent as to 宣言する that, "This shall not 妨げる any person from carrying his wool home from the place of shearing, though it be within five miles of the sea, 供給するd that in ten days after shearing, and before he 除去する the wool, he do under his 手渡す certify to the next officer of the customs, the true number of fleeces, and where it is housed; and do not 除去する the same, without certifying to such officer, under his 手渡す, his 意向 so to do, three days before." 社債 must be given that the wool to be carried coastways is to be landed at the particular port for which it is entered outwards; and if any part of it is landed without the presence of an officer, not only the 没収 of the wool is incurred as in other goods, but the usual 付加 刑罰，罰則 of three shillings for every 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる is likewise incurred.

Our woollen 製造（する）s, ーするために 正当化する their 需要・要求する of such 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 制限s and 規則s, confidently 主張するd that English wool was of a peculiar 質, superior to that of any other country; that the wool of other countries could not, without some mixture of it, be wrought up into any tolerable 製造（する）; that 罰金 cloth could not be made without it; that England, therefore, if the exportation of it could be 全く 妨げるd, could 独占する to herself almost the whole woollen 貿易（する） of the world; and thus, having no 競争相手s, could sell at what price she pleased, and in a short time acquire the most incredible degree of wealth by the most advantageous balance of 貿易（する）. This doctrine, like most other doctrines which are confidently 主張するd by any かなりの number of people, was, and still continues to be, most 暗黙に believed by a much greater number- by almost all those who are either unacquainted with the woollen 貿易（する）, or who have not made particular 調査s. It is, however, so perfectly 誤った that English wool is in any 尊敬（する）・点 necessary for the making of 罰金 cloth that it is altogether unfit for it. 罰金 cloth is made altogether of Spanish wool. English wool cannot be even so mixed with Spanish wool as to enter into the composition without spoiling and degrading, in some degree, the fabric of the cloth.

It has been shown in the foregoing part of this work that the 影響 of these 規則s has been to depress the price of English wool, not only below what it 自然に would be in the 現在の times, but very much below what it 現実に was in the time of Edward III. The price of Scots wool, when in consequence of the union it became 支配する to the same 規則s, is said to have fallen about one half. It is 観察するd by the very 正確な and intelligent author of the Memoirs of Wool, the Reverend Mr. John Smith, that the price of the best English wool in England is 一般に below what wool of a very inferior 質 一般的に sells for in the market of Amsterdam. To depress the price of this 商品／必需品 below what may be called its natural and proper price was the avowed 目的 of those 規則s; and there seems to be no 疑問 of their having produced the 影響 that was 推定する／予想するd from them.

This 削減 of price, it may perhaps be thought, by discouraging the growing of wool, must have 減ずるd very much the 年次の produce of that 商品／必需品, though not below what it 以前は was, yet below what, in the 現在の 明言する／公表する of things, it probably would have been, had it, in consequence of an open and 解放する／自由な market, been 許すd to rise to the natural and proper price. I am, however, 性質の／したい気がして to believe that the 量 of the 年次の produce cannot have been much, though it may perhaps have been a little, 影響する／感情d by these 規則s. The growing of wool is not the 長，指導者 目的 for which the sheep 農業者 雇うs his 産業 and 在庫／株. He 推定する／予想するs his 利益（をあげる） not so much from the price of the fleece as from that of the carcass; and the 普通の／平均（する） or ordinary price of the latter must even, in many 事例／患者s, （不足などを）補う to him whatever 欠陥／不足 there may be in the 普通の／平均（する） or ordinary price of the former. It has been 観察するd in the foregoing part of this work that, "Whatever 規則s tend to 沈む the price, either of wool or of raw hides, below what it 自然に would be, must, in an 改善するd and cultivated country, have some 傾向 to raise the price of butcher's meat. The price both of the 広大な／多数の／重要な and small cattle which are fed on 改善するd and cultivated land must be 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the rent which the landlord, and the 利益（をあげる） which the 農業者 has 推論する／理由 to 推定する／予想する from 改善するd and cultivated land. If it is not, they will soon 中止する to 料金d them. Whatever part of this price, therefore, is not paid by the wool and the hide must be paid by the carcass. The いっそう少なく there is paid for the one, the more must be paid for the other. In what manner this price is to be divided upon the different parts of the beast is indifferent to the landlords and 農業者s, 供給するd it is all paid to them. In an 改善するd and cultivated country, therefore, their 利益／興味 as landlords and 農業者s cannot be much 影響する／感情d by such 規則s, though their 利益／興味 as 消費者s may by the rise in the price of 準備／条項s." によれば this reas oning, therefore, this degradation in the price of wool is not likely, in an 改善するd and cultivated country, to occasion any diminution in the 年次の produce of that 商品／必需品, except so far as, by raising the price of mutton, it may somewhat 減らす the 需要・要求する for, and その結果 the 生産／産物 of, that particular 種類 of butcher's meat. Its 影響, however, even in this way, it is probable, is not very かなりの.

But though its 影響 upon the 量 of the 年次の produce may not have been very かなりの, its 影響 upon the 質, it may perhaps be thought, must やむを得ず have been very 広大な／多数の／重要な. The degradation in the 質 of English wool, if not below what it was in former times, yet below what it 自然に would have been in the 現在の 明言する／公表する of 改良 and cultivation, must have been, it may perhaps be supposed, very nearly in 割合 to the degradation of price. As the 質 depends upon the 産む／飼育する, upon the pasture, and upon the 管理／経営 and cleanliness of the sheep, during the whole 進歩 of the growth of the fleece, the attention to these circumstances, it may 自然に enough be imagined, can never be greater than in 割合 to the recompense which the price of the fleece is likely to make for the 労働 and expense which that attention 要求するs. It happens, however, that the goodness of the fleece depends, in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段, upon the health, growth, and 本体，大部分／ばら積みの of the animal; the same attention which is necessary for the 改良 of the carcase is, in some 尊敬（する）・点s, 十分な for that of the fleece. Notwithstanding the degradation of price, English wool is said to have been 改善するd かなり during the course even of the 現在の century. The 改良 might perhaps have been greater if the price had been better; but the lowness of price, though it may have 妨害するd, yet certainly it has not altogether 妨げるd that 改良.

The 暴力／激しさ of these 規則s, therefore, seems to have 影響する／感情d neither the 量 nor the 質 of the 年次の produce of wool so much as it might have been 推定する／予想するd to do (though I think it probable that it may have 影響する／感情d the latter a good 取引，協定 more than the former); and the 利益／興味 of the growers of wool, though it must have been 傷つける in some degree, seems, upon the whole, to have been much いっそう少なく 傷つける than could 井戸／弁護士席 have been imagined.

These considerations, however, will not 正当化する the 絶対の 禁止 of the exportation of wool. But they will fully 正当化する the 課税 of a かなりの 税金 upon that exportation.

To 傷つける in any degree the 利益／興味 of any one order of 国民s, for no other 目的 but to 促進する that of some other, is evidently contrary to that 司法（官） and equality of 治療 which the 君主 借りがあるs to all the different orders of his 支配するs. But the 禁止 certainly 傷つけるs, in some degree, the 利益／興味 of the growers of wool, for no other 目的 but to 促進する that of the 製造業者s.

Every different order of 国民s is bound to 与える／捧げる to the support of the 君主 or 連邦／共和国. A 税金 of five, or even of ten shillings upon the exportation of every トン of wool would produce a very かなりの 歳入 to the 君主. It would 傷つける the 利益／興味 of the growers somewhat いっそう少なく than the 禁止, because it would not probably lower the price of wool やめる so much. It would afford a 十分な advantage to the 製造業者, because, though he might not buy his wool altogether so cheap as under the 禁止, he would still buy it, at least, five or ten shillings cheaper than any foreign 製造業者 could buy it, besides saving the freight and 保険, which the other would be 強いるd to 支払う／賃金. It is 不十分な possible to 工夫する a 税金 which could produce any かなりの 歳入 to the 君主, and at the same time occasion so little inconveniency to anybody.

The 禁止, notwithstanding all the 刑罰，罰則s which guard it, does not 妨げる the exportation of wool. It is 輸出（する）d, it is 井戸／弁護士席 known, in 広大な／多数の／重要な 量s. The 広大な／多数の／重要な difference between the price in the home and that in the foreign market 現在のs such a 誘惑 to 密輸するing that all the rigour of the 法律 cannot 妨げる it. This 違法な exportation is advantageous to nobody but the smuggler. A 合法的な exportation 支配する to a 税金, by affording a 歳入 to the 君主, and その為に saving the 課税 of some other, perhaps, more burdensome and inconvenient 税金s might 証明する advantageous to all the different 支配するs of the 明言する／公表する.

The exportation of fuller's earth or fuller's clay, supposed to be necessary for 準備するing and 洗浄するing the woolen 製造（する）s, has been 支配するd to nearly the same 刑罰，罰則s as the exportation of wool. Even タバコ-麻薬を吸う clay, though 定評のある to be different from fuller's clay, yet, on account of their resemblance, and because fuller's clay might いつかs be 輸出（する）d as タバコ-麻薬を吸う clay, has been laid under the same 禁止s and 刑罰，罰則s.

By the 13th and 14th of Charles II, c. 7, the exportation, not only of raw hides, but of tanned leather, except in the 形態／調整 of boots, shoes, or slippers, was 禁じるd; and the 法律 gave a monopoly to our bootmakers and shoemakers, not only against our graziers, but against our tanners. By その後の 法令s our tanners have got themselves 免除されたd from this monopoly upon 支払う／賃金ing a small 税金 of only one shilling on the hundred-負わせる of tanned leather, 重さを計るing one hundred and twelve 続けざまに猛撃するs. They have 得るd likewise the drawback of two-thirds of the excise 義務s 課すd upon their 商品／必需品 even when 輸出（する）d without その上の 製造（する）. All 製造（する）s of leather may be 輸出（する）d 義務 解放する／自由な; and the 輸出業者 is besides する権利を与えるd to the drawback of the whole 義務s of excise. Our graziers still continue 支配する to the old monopoly. Graziers separated from one another, and 分散させるd through all the different corners of the country, cannot, without 広大な／多数の／重要な difficulty, 連合させる together for the 目的 either of 課すing monopolies upon their fellow 国民s, or of 免除されたing themselves from such as may have been 課すd upon them by other people. 製造業者s of all 肉親，親類d, collected together in 非常に／多数の 団体／死体s in all 広大な／多数の／重要な cities, easily can. Even the horns of cattle are 禁じるd to be 輸出（する）d; and the two insignificant 貿易（する）s of the horner and combmaker enjoy, in this 尊敬（する）・点, a monopoly against the graziers.

抑制s, either by 禁止s or by 税金s, upon the exportation of goods which are 部分的に／不公平に, but not 完全に 製造（する）d, are not peculiar to the 製造（する） of leather. As long as anything remains to be done, ーするために fit any 商品／必需品 for 即座の use and 消費, our 製造業者s think that they themselves せねばならない have the doing of it. Woolen yarn and worsted are 禁じるd to be 輸出（する）d under the same 刑罰，罰則s as wool. Even white cloths are 支配する to a 義務 upon exportation, and our dyers have so far 得るd a monopoly against our clothiers. Our clothiers would probably have been able to defend themselves against it, but it happens that the greater part of our 主要な／長／主犯 clothiers are themselves likewise dyers. Watch-事例／患者s, clockcases, and dial-plates for clocks and watches have been 禁じるd to be 輸出（する）d. Our clock-製造者s and watch-製造者s are, it seems, unwilling that the price of this sort of workmanship should be raised upon them by the 競争 of foreigners.

By some old 法令s of Edward M, Henry VIII, and Edward VI, the exportation of all metals was 禁じるd. Lead and tin were alone excepted probably on account of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 豊富 of those metals, in the exportation of which a かなりの part of the 貿易（する） of the kingdom in those days consisted. For the 激励 of the 採掘 貿易（する）, the 5th of William and Mary, c. 17, 免除されたd from the 禁止 アイロンをかける, 巡査, and mundic metal made from British 鉱石. The exportation of all sorts of 巡査 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業s, foreign 同様に as British, was afterwards permitted by the 9th and 10th of William III, c. 26. The exportation of unmanufactured 厚かましさ／高級将校連, of what is called gun-metal, bell-metal, and shroff-metal, still continues to be 禁じるd. 厚かましさ／高級将校連 製造（する）s of all sorts may be 輸出（する）d 義務 解放する／自由な.

The exportation of the 構成要素s of 製造（する）, where it is not altogether 禁じるd, is in many 事例／患者s 支配するd to かなりの 義務s.

By the 8th George I, c. 15, the exportation of all goods, the produce or 製造（する） of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, upon which any 義務s had been 課すd by former 法令s, was （判決などを）下すd 義務 解放する／自由な. The に引き続いて goods, however, were excepted: alum, lead, lead 鉱石, tin, tanned leather, copperas, coals, wool cards, white woolen cloths, lapis calaminaris, 肌s of all sorts, glue, coney hair or wool, hares' wool, hair of all sorts, horses, and litharge of lead. If you 推定する／予想する horses, all these are either 構成要素s of 製造（する）, or incomplete 製造（する）s (which may be considered as 構成要素s for still その上の 製造（する）), or 器具s of 貿易（する）. This 法令 leaves them 支配する to all the old 義務s which had ever been 課すd upon them, the old 補助金 and one per cent outwards.

By the same 法令 a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of foreign 麻薬s for dyers' use are 免除されたd from all 義務s upon 輸入. Each of them, however, is afterwards 支配するd to a 確かな 義務, not indeed a very 激しい one, upon exportation. Our dyers, it seems, while they thought it for their 利益／興味 to encourage the 輸入 of those 麻薬s, by an 控除 from all 義務s, thought it likewise for their 利益／興味 to throw some small discouragement upon their exportation. The avidity, however, which 示唆するd this 著名な piece of 商業の ingenuity, most probably disappointed itself of its 反対する. It やむを得ず taught the importers to be more careful than they might さもなければ have been that their 輸入 should not 越える what was necessary for the 供給（する） of the home market. The home market was at all times likely to be more scantily 供給（する）d; the 商品／必需品s were at all times likely to be somewhat dearer there than they would have been had the exportation been （判決などを）下すd as 解放する／自由な as the 輸入.

By the above-について言及するd 法令, gum senega, or gum arabic, 存在 の中で the enumerated dyeing 麻薬s, might be 輸入するd 義務 解放する／自由な. They were 支配するd, indeed, to a small poundage 義務, 量ing only to threepence in the hundredweight upon their re-exportation. フラン enjoyed, at that time, an 排除的 貿易（する） to the country most 生産力のある of those 麻薬s, that which lies in the neighbourhood of the Senegal; and the British market could not easily be 供給（する）d by the 即座の 輸入 of them from the place of growth. By the 25th George II, therefore, gum senega was 許すd to be 輸入するd (contrary to the general dispositions of the 行為／法令／行動する of 航海) from any part of Europe. As the 法律, however, did not mean to encourage this 種類 of 貿易（する）, so contrary to the general 原則s of the 商業の 政策 of England, it 課すd a 義務 of ten shillings the hundredweight upon such 輸入, and no part of this 義務 was to be afterwards drawn 支援する upon its exportation. The successful war which began in 1755 gave 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain the same 排除的 貿易（する） to those countries which フラン had enjoyed before. Our 製造業者s, as soon as the peace was made, endeavoured to avail themselves of this advantage, and to 設立する a monopoly in their own favour both against the growers and against the importers of this 商品／必需品. By the 5th George III, therefore, c. 37, the exportation of gum senega from his Majesty's dominions in Africa was 限定するd to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and was 支配するd to all the same 制限s, 規則s, 没収s, and 刑罰，罰則s as that of the enumerated 商品／必需品s of the British 植民地s in America and the West Indies. Its 輸入, indeed, was 支配するd to a small 義務 of sixpence the hundredweight, but its re-exportation was 支配するd to the enormous 義務 of one 続けざまに猛撃する ten shillings the hundredweight. It was the 意向 of our 製造業者s that the whole produce of those countries should be 輸入するd into 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and, in order that they themselves might be enabled to buy it at their own price, that no part of it should be 輸出（する）d again but at such an expense as would 十分に discourage that exportation. Their avidity, however, upon this, 同様に as upon many other occasions, disappointed itself of its 反対する. This enormous 義務 現在のd such a 誘惑 to 密輸するing that 広大な／多数の／重要な 量s of this 商品／必需品 were clandestinely 輸出（する）d, probably to all the 製造業の countries of Europe, put 特に to Holland, not only from 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain but from Africa. Upon this account, by the 14th George III, c. 10, this 義務 upon exportation was 減ずるd to five shillings the hundredweight.

In the 調書をとる／予約する of 率s, によれば which the Old 補助金 was 徴収するd, beaver 肌s were 概算の at six shillings and eightpence a piece, and the different 補助金s and imposts, which before the year 1722 had been laid upon their 輸入, 量d to one-fifth part of the 率, or to sixteenpence upon each 肌; all of which, except half the Old 補助金, 量ing only to twopence, was drawn 支援する upon exportation. This 義務 upon the 輸入 of so important a 構成要素 of 製造（する） had been thought too high, and in the year 1722 the 率 was 減ずるd to two shillings and sixpence, which 減ずるd the 義務 upon 輸入 to sixpence, and of this only one half was to be drawn 支援する upon exportation. The same successful war put the country most 生産力のある of beaver under the dominion of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and beaver 肌s 存在 の中で the enumerated 商品／必需品s, their exportation from America was その結果 限定するd to the market of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. Our 製造業者s soon bethought themselves of the advantage which they might make of this circumstance, and in the year 1764 the 義務 upon the 輸入 of beaver-肌 was 減ずるd to one penny, but the 義務 upon exportation was raised to sevenpence each 肌, without any drawback of the 義務 upon 輸入. By the same 法律, a 義務 of eighteenpence the 続けざまに猛撃する was 課すd upon the exportation of beaverwool or wombs, without making any alteration in the 義務 upon the 輸入 of that 商品／必需品, which, when 輸入するd by Britain and in British shipping, 量d at that time to between fourpence and fivepence the piece.

Coals may be considered both as a 構成要素 of 製造（する） and as an 器具 of 貿易（する）. 激しい 義務s, accordingly, have been 課すd upon their exportation, 量ing at 現在の (1783) to more than five shillings the トン, or to more than fifteen shillings the chaldron, Newcastle 対策, which is in most 事例／患者s more than the 初めの value of the 商品／必需品 at the coal 炭坑，オーケストラ席, or even at the shipping port for exportation.

The exportation, however, of the 器具s of 貿易（する）, 適切に so called, is 一般的に 抑制するd, not by high 義務s, but by 絶対の 禁止s. Thus by the 7th and 8th of William III, c. 20, sect. 8, the exportation of でっちあげる，人を罪に陥れるs or engines for knitting gloves or stockings is 禁じるd under the 刑罰，罰則, not only of the 没収 of such でっちあげる，人を罪に陥れるs or engines so 輸出（する）d, or 試みる／企てるd to be 輸出（する）d, but of forty 続けざまに猛撃するs, one half to the king, the other to the person who shall 知らせる or 告訴する for the same. In the same manner, by the 14th George III, c. 71, the exportation to foreign parts of any utensils made use of in the cotton, linen, woollen, and silk 製造（する）s is 禁じるd under the 刑罰，罰則, not only of the 没収 of such utensils, but of two hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs, to be paid by the person who shall 感情を害する／違反する in this manner, and likewise of two hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs to be paid by the master of the ship who shall knowingly 苦しむ such utensils to be 負担d on board his ship.

When such 激しい 刑罰，罰則s were 課すd upon the exportation of the dead 器具s of 貿易（する）, it could not 井戸／弁護士席 be 推定する／予想するd that the living 器具, the artificer, should be 許すd to go 解放する／自由な. Accordingly, by the 5th George I, c. 27, the person who shall be 罪人／有罪を宣告するd of enticing any artificer of, or in any of the 製造（する）s of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, to go into any foreign parts ーするために practise or teach his 貿易（する）, is liable for the first offence to be 罰金d in any sum not 越えるing one hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs, and to three months' 監禁，拘置, and until the 罰金 shall be paid; and for the second offence, to be 罰金d in any sum at the discretion of the 法廷，裁判所, and to 監禁，拘置 for twelve months, and until the 罰金 shall be paid. By the 23rd George II, c. 13, this 刑罰，罰則 is 増加するd for the first offence to five hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs for every artificer so enticed, and to twelve months' 監禁，拘置, and until the 罰金 shall be paid; and for the second offence, to one thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs, and to two years' 監禁，拘置, and until the 罰金 shall be paid.

By the former of those two 法令s, upon proof that any person has been enticing any artificer, or that any artificer has 約束d or 契約d to go into foreign parts for the 目的s aforesaid, such artificer may be 強いるd to give 安全 at the discretion of the 法廷，裁判所 that he shall not go beyond the seas, and may be committed to 刑務所，拘置所 until he give such 安全.

If any artificer has gone beyond the seas, and is 演習ing or teaching his 貿易（する） in any foreign country, upon 警告 存在 given to him by any of his Majesty's 大臣s or 領事s abroad, or by one of his Majesty's 長官s of 明言する／公表する for the time 存在, if he does not, within six months after such 警告, return into this realm, and from thenceforth がまんする and 住む continually within the same, he is from thenceforth 宣言するd incapable of taking any 遺産／遺物 工夫するd to him within this kingdom, or of 存在 executor or 行政官／管理者 to any person, or of taking any lands within this kingdom by 降下／家系, 装置, or 購入（する）. He likewise 没収されるs to the king all his lands, goods, and chattels, is 宣言するd an 外国人 in every 尊敬（する）・点, and is put out of the king's 保護.

It is unnecessary, I imagine, to 観察する how contrary such 規則s are to the 誇るd liberty of the 支配する, of which we 影響する／感情 to be so very jealous; but which, in this 事例／患者, is so plainly sacrificed to the futile 利益／興味s of our merchants and 製造業者s.

The laudable 動機 of all these 規則s is to 延長する our own 製造（する）s, not by their own 改良, but by the 不景気 of those of all our 隣人s, and by putting an end, as much as possible, to the troublesome 競争 of such 嫌悪すべき and disagreeable 競争相手s. Our master 製造業者s think it reasonable that they themselves should have the monopoly of the ingenuity of all their countrymen. Though by 抑制するing, in some 貿易（する）s, the number of 見習い工s which can be 雇うd at one time, and by 課すing the necessity of a long 見習いの身分制度 in all 貿易（する）s, they endeavour, all of them, to 限定する the knowledge of their 各々の 雇用s to as small a number as possible; they are unwilling, however, that any part of this small number should go abroad to 教える foreigners.

消費 is the 単独の end and 目的 of all 生産／産物; and the 利益／興味 of the 生産者 せねばならない be …に出席するd to only so far as it may be necessary for 促進するing that of the 消費者. The maxim is so perfectly self evident that it would be absurd to 試みる／企てる to 証明する it. But in the 商業の system the 利益／興味 of the 消費者 is almost 絶えず sacrificed to that of the 生産者; and it seems to consider 生産／産物, and not 消費, as the ultimate end and 反対する of all 産業 and 商業.

In the 抑制s upon the 輸入 of all foreign 商品／必需品s which can come into 競争 with those of our own growth or 製造（する）, the 利益／興味 of the home 消費者 is evidently sacrificed to that of the 生産者. It is altogether for the 利益 of the latter that the former is 強いるd to 支払う／賃金 that enhancement of price which this monopoly almost always occasions.

It is altogether for the 利益 of the 生産者 that bounties are 認めるd upon the exportation of some of his 生産／産物s. The home 消費者 is 強いるd to 支払う／賃金, first, the 税金 which is necessary for 支払う／賃金ing the bounty, and secondly, the still greater 税金 which やむを得ず arises from the enhancement of the price of the 商品／必需品 in the home market.

By the famous 条約 of 商業 with Portugal, the 消費者 is 妨げるd by high 義務s from 購入（する）ing of a 隣人ing country a 商品／必需品 which our own 気候 does not produce, but is 強いるd to 購入（する） it of a distant country, though it is 定評のある that the 商品／必需品 of the distant country is of a worse 質 than that of the 近づく one. The home 消費者 is 強いるd to 服従させる／提出する to this inconveniency in order that the 生産者 may 輸入する into the distant country some of his 生産／産物s upon more advantageous 条件 than he would さもなければ have been 許すd to do. The 消費者, too, is 強いるd to 支払う／賃金 whatever enhancement in the price if those very 生産／産物s this 軍隊d exportation may occasion in the home market.

But in the system of 法律s which has been 設立するd for the 管理／経営 of our American and West Indian 植民地s, the 利益／興味 of the home 消費者 has been sacrificed to that of the 生産者 with a more extravagant profusion than in all our other 商業の 規則s. A 広大な／多数の／重要な empire has been 設立するd for the 単独の 目的 of raising up a nation of 顧客s who should be 強いるd to buy from the shops of our different 生産者s all the goods with which these could 供給（する） them. For the sake of that little enhancement of price which this monopoly might afford our 生産者s, the home 消費者s have been 重荷（を負わせる）d with the whole expense of 持続するing and defending that empire. For this 目的, and for this 目的 only, in the two last wars, more than two hundred millions have been spent, and a new 負債 of more than a hundred and seventy millions has been 契約d over and above all that had been expended for the same 目的 in former wars. The 利益／興味 of this 負債 alone is not only greater than the whole 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 利益（をあげる） which it ever could be pretended was made by the monopoly of the 植民地 貿易（する）, but than the whole value of that 貿易（する）, or than the whole value of the goods which at an 普通の／平均（する） have been 毎年 輸出（する）d to the 植民地s.

It cannot be very difficult to 決定する who have been the contrivers of this whole 商業の system; not the 消費者s, we may believe, whose 利益／興味 has been 完全に neglected; but the 生産者s, whose 利益／興味 has been so carefully …に出席するd to; and の中で this latter class our merchants and 製造業者s have been by far the 主要な／長／主犯 architects. In the 商業の 規則s, which have been taken notice of in this 一時期／支部, the 利益／興味 of our 製造業者s has been most peculiarly …に出席するd to; and the 利益／興味, not so much of the 消費者s, as that of some other 始める，決めるs of 生産者s, has been sacrificed to it.

一時期／支部 IX
Of the 農業の Systems,
or of those Systems of Political Economy which 代表する
the Produce of Land as either the 単独の or the 主要な／長／主犯
Source of the 歳入 and Wealth every Country

That system which 代表するs the produce of land as the 単独の source of the 歳入 and wealth of every country has, so far as I know, never been 可決する・採択するd by any nation, and it at 現在の 存在するs only in the 憶測s of a few men of 広大な／多数の／重要な learning and ingenuity in フラン. It would not, surely, be 価値（がある） while to 診察する at 広大な／多数の／重要な length the errors of a system which never has done, and probably never will do, any 害（を与える） in any part of the world. I shall endeavour to explain, however, as distinctly as I can, the 広大な／多数の／重要な 輪郭（を描く）s of this very ingenious system.

Mr. Colbert, the famous 大臣 of Louis XIV, was a man of probity, of 広大な／多数の／重要な 産業 and knowledge of 詳細（に述べる）, of 広大な／多数の／重要な experience and acuteness in the examination of public accounts, and of abilities, in short, every way fitted for introducing method and good order into the collection and 支出 of the public 歳入. That 大臣 had unfortunately embraced all the prejudices of the 商業の system, in its nature and essence a system of 抑制 and 規則, and such as could 不十分な fail to be agreeable to a laborious and plodding man of 商売／仕事, who had been accustomed to 規制する the different departments of public offices, and to 設立する the necessary checks and 支配（する）／統制するs for 限定するing each to its proper sphere. The 産業 and 商業 of a 広大な／多数の／重要な country he endeavoured to 規制する upon the same model as the departments of a public office; and instead of 許すing every man to 追求する his own 利益／興味 in his own way, upon the 自由主義の 計画（する） of equality, liberty, and 司法（官）, he bestowed upon 確かな 支店s of 産業 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 特権s, while he laid others under as 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 抑制s. He was not only 性質の／したい気がして, like other European 大臣s, to encourage more the 産業 of the towns than that of the country; but, ーするために support the 産業 of the towns, he was willing even to depress and keep 負かす／撃墜する that of the country. ーするために （判決などを）下す 準備／条項s cheap to the inhabitants of the towns, and その為に to encourage 製造（する）s and foreign 商業, he 禁じるd altogether the exportation of corn, and thus 除外するd the inhabitants of the country from every foreign market for by far the most important part of the produce of their 産業. This 禁止, joined to the 抑制s 課すd by the 古代の 地方の 法律s of フラン upon the transportation of corn from one 州 to another, and to the 独断的な and degrading 税金s which are 徴収するd upon the cultivators in almost all the 州s, discouraged and kept 負かす／撃墜する the 農業 of that country very much below the 明言する／公表する to which it would 自然に have risen in so very fertile a 国／地域 and so very happy a 気候. This 明言する／公表する of discouragement and 不景気 was felt more or いっそう少なく in every different part of the country, and many different 調査s were 始める，決める on foot 関心ing the 原因（となる）s of it. One of those 原因（となる）s appeared to be the preference given, by the 会・原則s of Mr. Colbert, to the 産業 of the towns above that of the country.

If the 棒 be bent too much one way, says the proverb, ーするために make it straight you must bend it as much the other. The French philosophers, who have 提案するd the system which 代表するs 農業 as the 単独の source of the 歳入 and wealth of every country, seem to have 可決する・採択するd this proverbial maxim; and as in the 計画（する） of Mr. Colbert the 産業 of the towns was certainly overvalued in comparison with that of the country; so in their system it seems to be as certainly undervalued.

The different orders of people who have ever been supposed to 与える／捧げる in any 尊敬（する）・点 に向かって the 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of the country, they divide into three classes. The first is the class of the proprietors of land. The second is the class of the cultivators, of 農業者s and country labourers, whom they honour with the peculiar 呼称 of the 生産力のある class. The third is the class of artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants, whom they endeavour to degrade by the humiliating 呼称 of the barren or unproductive class.

The class of proprietors 与える／捧げるs to the 年次の produce by the expense which they may occasionally lay out upon the 改良 of the land, upon the buildings, drains, enclosures, and other ameliorations, which they may either make or 持続する upon it, and by means of which the cultivators are enabled, with the same 資本／首都, to raise a greater produce, and その結果 to 支払う／賃金 a greater rent. This 前進するd rent may be considered as the 利益／興味 or 利益（をあげる） 予定 to the proprietor upon the expense or 資本／首都 which he thus 雇うs in the 改良 of his land. Such expenses are in this system called ground expenses (depenses foncieres.)

The cultivators or 農業者s 与える／捧げる to the 年次の produce by what are in this system called the 初めの and 年次の expenses (depenses 原始のs et depenses annuelles) which they lay out upon the cultivation of the land. The 初めの expenses consist in the 器具s of husbandry, in the 在庫／株 of cattle, in the seed, and in the 維持／整備 of the 農業者's family, servants, and cattle during at least a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the first year of his occupancy, or till he can receive some return from the land. The 年次の expenses consist in the seed, in the wear and 涙／ほころび of the 器具s of husbandry, and in the 年次の 維持／整備 of the 農業者's servants and cattle, and of his family too, so far as any part of them can be considered as servants 雇うd in cultivation. That part of the produce of the land which remains to him after 支払う／賃金ing the rent せねばならない be 十分な, first, to 取って代わる to him within a reasonable time, at least during the 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of his occupancy, the whole of his 初めの expenses, together with the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株; and, secondly, to 取って代わる to him 毎年 the whole of his 年次の expenses, together likewise with the ordering 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株. Those two sorts of expenses are two 資本／首都s which the 農業者 雇うs in cultivation; and unless they are 定期的に 回復するd to him, together with a reasonable 利益（をあげる）, he cannot carry on his 雇用 upon a level with other 雇用s; but, from a regard to his own 利益／興味, must 砂漠 it as soon as possible and 捜し出す some other. That part of the produce of the land which is thus necessary for enabling the 農業者 to continue his 商売／仕事 せねばならない be considered as a 基金 sacred to cultivation, which, if the landlord 侵害する／違反するs, he やむを得ず 減ずるs the produce of his own land, and in a few years not only 無能にするs the 農業者 from 支払う／賃金ing this racked rent, but from 支払う／賃金ing the reasonable rent which he might さもなければ have got for his land. The rent which 適切に belongs to the landlord is no more than the 逮捕する produce which remains after 支払う／賃金ing in the co mpletest manner all the necessary expenses which must be 以前 laid out ーするために raise the 甚だしい／１２ダース or the whole produce. It is because the 労働 of the cultivators, over and above 支払う／賃金ing 完全に all those necessary expenses, affords a 逮捕する produce of this 肉親，親類d that this class of people are in this system peculiarly distinguished by the honourable 呼称 of the 生産力のある class. Their 初めの and 年次の expenses are for the same 推論する／理由 called, in this system, 生産力のある expenses, because, over and above 取って代わるing their own value, they occasion the 年次の reproduction of this 逮捕する produce.

The ground expenses, as they are called, or what the landlord lays out upon the 改良 of his land, are in this system, too, honoured with the 呼称 of 生産力のある expenses. Till the whole of those expenses, together with the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, have been 完全に repaid to him by the 前進するd rent which he gets from his land, that 前進するd rent せねばならない be regarded as sacred and inviolable, both by the church and by the king; せねばならない be 支配する neither to tithe nor to 課税. If it is さもなければ, by discouraging the 改良 of land the church discourages the 未来 増加する of her own tithes, and the king the 未来 増加する of his own 税金s. As in a 井戸／弁護士席-ordered 明言する／公表する of things, therefore, those ground expenses, over and above 再生するing in the completest manner their own value, occasion likewise after a 確かな time a reproduction of a 逮捕する produce, they are in this system considered as 生産力のある expenses.

The ground expenses of the landlord, however, together with the 初めの and the 年次の expenses of the 農業者, are the only three sorts of expenses which in this system are considered as 生産力のある. All other expenses and all other orders of people, even those who in the ありふれた 逮捕s of men are regarded as the most 生産力のある, are in this account of things 代表するd as altogether barren and unproductive.

Artificers and 製造業者s in particular, whose 産業, in the ありふれた 逮捕s of men, 増加するs so much the value of the rude produce of land, are in this system 代表するd as a class of people altogether barren and unproductive. Their 労働, it is said, 取って代わるs only the 在庫／株 which 雇うs them, together with its ordinary 利益（をあげる）s. That 在庫／株 consists in the 構成要素s, 道具s, and 給料 前進するd to them by their 雇用者; and is the 基金 運命にあるd for their 雇用 and 維持／整備. Its 利益（をあげる）s are the 基金 運命にあるd for the 維持／整備 of their 雇用者. Their 雇用者, as he 前進するs to them the 在庫／株 of 構成要素s, 道具s, and 給料 necessary for their 雇用, so he 前進するs to himself what is necessary for his own 維持／整備, and this 維持／整備 he 一般に 割合s to the 利益（をあげる） which he 推定する／予想するs to make by the price of their work. Unless its price 返すs to him the 維持／整備 which he 前進するs to himself, 同様に as the 構成要素s, 道具s, and 給料 which he 前進するs to his workmen, it evidently does not 返す to him the whole expense which he lays out upon it. The 利益（をあげる）s of 製造業の 在庫／株 therefore are not, like the rent of land, a 逮捕する produce which remains after 完全に 返すing the whole expense which must be laid out ーするために 得る them. The 在庫／株 of the 農業者 産する／生じるs him a 利益（をあげる） 同様に as that of the master 製造業者; and it 産する／生じるs a rent likewise to another person, which that of the master 製造業者 does not. The expense, therefore, laid out in 雇うing and 持続するing artificers and 製造業者s does no more than continue, if one may say so, the 存在 of its own value, and does not produce any new value. It is therefore altogether a barren and unproductive expense. The expense, on the contrary, laid out in 雇うing 農業者s and country labourers, over and above continuing the 存在 of its own value, produces a new value, the rent of the landlord. It is therefore a 生産力のある expense.

商業の 在庫／株 is 平等に barren and unproductive with 製造業の 在庫／株. It only continues the 存在 of its own value, without producing any new value. Its 利益（をあげる）s are only the 返済 of the 維持／整備 which its 雇用者 前進するs to himself during the time that he 雇うs it, or till he receives the returns of it. They are only the 返済 of a part of the expense which must be laid out in 雇うing it.

The 労働 of artificers and 製造業者s never 追加するs anything to the value of the whole 年次の 量 of the rude produce of the land. It 追加するs, indeed, 大いに to the value of some particular parts of it. But the 消費 which in the 合間 it occasions of other parts is 正確に equal to the value which it 追加するs to those parts; so that the value of the whole 量 is not, at any one moment of time, in the least augmented by it. The person who 作品 the lace of a pair of 罰金 ruffles, for example, will いつかs raise the value of perhaps a pennyworth of flax to thirty 続けざまに猛撃するs 英貨の／純銀の. But though at first sight he appears その為に to multiply the value of a part of the rude produce about seven thousand and two hundred times, he in reality 追加するs nothing to the value of the whole 年次の 量 of the rude produce. The working of that lace costs him perhaps two years' 労働. The thirty 続けざまに猛撃するs which he gets for it when it is finished is no more than the 返済 of the subsistence which he 前進するs to himself during the two years that he is 雇うd about it. The value which, by every day's, month's, or year's 労働, he 追加するs to the flax does no more than 取って代わる the value of his own 消費 during that day, month, or year. At no moment of time, therefore, does he 追加する anything to the value of the whole 年次の 量 of the rude produce of the land: the 部分 of that produce which he is continually 消費するing 存在 always equal to the value which he is continually producing. The extreme poverty of the greater part of the persons 雇うd in this expensive though trifling 製造（する） may 満足させる us that the price of their work does not in ordinary 事例／患者s 越える the value of their subsistence. It is さもなければ with the work of 農業者s and country labourers. The rent of the landlord is a value which, in ordinary 事例／患者s, it is continually producing, over and above 取って代わるing, in the most 完全にする manner, the whole 消費, the whole expense laid out upon the 雇用 and 維持／整備 both of the workmen and of their 雇用者.

Artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants can augment the 歳入 and wealth of their society by parsimony only; or, as it in this system, by privation, that is, by 奪うing themselves a part of the 基金s 運命にあるd for their own subsistence. They 毎年 再生する nothing but those 基金s. Unless, therefore, they 毎年 save some part of them, unless they 毎年 奪う themselves of the enjoyment of some part of them, the 歳入 and wealth of their society can never be in the smallest degree augmented by means of their 産業. 農業者s and country labourers, on the contrary, may enjoy 完全に the whole 基金s 運命にあるd for their own subsistence, and yet augment at the same time the 歳入 and wealth of their society. Over and above what is 運命にあるd for their own subsistence, their 産業 毎年 affords a 逮捕する produce, of which the augmentation やむを得ず augments the 歳入 and wealth of their society. Nations therefore which, like フラン or England, consist in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 of proprietors and cultivators can be 濃厚にするd by 産業 and enjoyment. Nations, on the contrary, which, like Holland and Hamburg, are composed 主として of merchants, artificers, and 製造業者s can grow rich only through parsimony and privation. As the 利益／興味 of nations so 異なって circumstanced is very different, so is likewise the ありふれた character of the people: in those of the former 肉親，親類d, liberality, frankness and good fellowship 自然に make a part of that ありふれた character: in the latter, narrowness, meanness, and a selfish disposition, averse to all social 楽しみ and enjoyment.

The unproductive class, that of merchants, artificers, and 製造業者s, is 持続するd and 雇うd altogether at the expense of the two other classes, of that of proprietors, and of that of cultivators. They furnish it both with the 構成要素s of its work and with the 基金 of its subsistence, with the corn and cattle which it 消費するs while it is 雇うd about that work. The proprietors and cultivators finally 支払う／賃金 both the 給料 of all the workmen of the unproductive class, and of the 利益（をあげる）s of all their 雇用者s. Those workmen and their 雇用者s are 適切に the servants of the proprietors and cultivators. They are only servants who work without doors, as menial servants work within. Both the one and the other, however, are 平等に 持続するd at the expense of the same masters. The 労働 of both is 平等に unproductive. It 追加するs nothing to the value of the sum total of the rude produce of the land. Instead of 増加するing the value of that sum total, it is a 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金 and expense which must be paid out of it.

The unproductive class, however, is not only useful, but 大いに useful to the other two classes. By means of the 産業 of merchants, artificers, and 製造業者s, the proprietors and cultivators can 購入（する） both the foreign goods and the 製造（する）d produce of their own country which they have occasion for with the produce of a much smaller 量 of their own 労働 than what they would be 強いるd to 雇う if they were to 試みる／企てる, in an ぎこちない and unskilful manner, either to 輸入する the one or to make the other for their own use. By means of the unproductive class, the cultivators are 配達するd from many cares which would さもなければ distract their attention from the cultivation of land. The 優越 of produce, which, in consequence of this 分割されない attention, they are enabled to raise, is fully 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the whole expense which the 維持／整備 and 雇用 of the unproductive class costs either the proprietors or themselves. The 産業 of merchants, artificers, and 製造業者s, though in its own nature altogether unproductive, yet 与える／捧げるs in this manner 間接に to 増加する the produce of the land. It 増加するs the 生産力のある 力／強力にするs of 生産力のある 労働 by leaving it at liberty to 限定する itself to its proper 雇用, the cultivation of land; and the plough goes frequently the easier and the better by means of the 労働 of the man whose 商売／仕事 is most remote from the plough.

It can never be the 利益／興味 of the proprietors and cultivators to 抑制する or to discourage in any 尊敬（する）・点 the 産業 of merchants, artificers, and 製造業者s. The greater the liberty which this unproductive class enjoys, the greater will be the 競争 in all the different 貿易（する）s which compose it, and the cheaper will the other two classes be 供給（する）d, both with foreign goods and with the 製造（する）d produce of their own country.

It can never be the 利益／興味 of the unproductive class to 抑圧する the other two classes. It is the 黒字／過剰 produce of the land, or what remains after deducting the 維持／整備, first, of the cultivators, and afterwards of the proprietors, that 持続するs and 雇うs the unproductive class. The greater this 黒字／過剰 the greater must likewise be the 維持／整備 and 雇用 of that class. The 設立 of perfect 司法（官）, of perfect liberty, and of perfect equality is the very simple secret which most effectually 安全な・保証するs the highest degree of 繁栄 to all the three classes.

The merchants, artificers, and 製造業者s of those 商業の 明言する／公表するs which, like Holland and Hamburg, consist 主として of this unproductive class, are in the same manner 持続するd and 雇うd altogether at the expense of the proprietors and cultivators of land. The only difference is, that those proprietors and cultivators are, the greater part of them, placed at a most inconvenient distance from the merchants, artificers, and 製造業者s whom they 供給（する） with the 構成要素s of their work and the 基金 of their subsistences- the inhabitants of other countries and the 支配するs of other 政府s.

Such 商業の 明言する／公表するs, however, are not only useful, but 大いに useful to the inhabitants of those other countries. They fill up, in some 手段, a very important 無効の, and 供給（する） the place of the merchants, artificers, and 製造業者s whom the inhabitants of those countries せねばならない find at home, but whom, from some defect in their 政策, they do not find at home.

It can never be the 利益／興味 of those landed nations, if I may call them so, to discourage or 苦しめる the 産業 of such 商業の 明言する／公表するs by 課すing high 義務s upon their 貿易（する） or upon the 商品／必需品s which they furnish. Such 義務s, by （判決などを）下すing those 商品／必需品s dearer, could serve only to 沈む the real value of the 黒字／過剰 produce of their own land, with which, or, what comes to the same thing, with the price of which those 商品／必需品s are 購入（する）d. Such 義務s could serve only to discourage the 増加する of that 黒字／過剰 produce, and その結果 the 改良 and cultivation of their own land. The most effectual expedient, on the contrary, for raising the value of that 黒字／過剰 produce, for encouraging its 増加する, and その結果 the 改良 and cultivation of their own land would be to 許す the most perfect freedom to the 貿易（する） of all such 商業の nations.

This perfect freedom of 貿易（する） would even be the most effectual expedient for 供給（する）ing them, in 予定 time, with all the artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants whom they 手配中の，お尋ね者 at home, and for filling up in the properest and most advantageous manner that very important 無効の which they felt there.

The continual 増加する of the 黒字／過剰 produce of their land would, in 予定 time, create a greater 資本／首都 than what could be 雇うd with the ordinary 率 of 利益（をあげる） in the 改良 and cultivation of land; and the 黒字／過剰 part of it would 自然に turn itself to the 雇用 of artificers and 製造業者s at home. But those artificers and 製造業者s, finding at home both the 構成要素s of their work and the 基金 of their subsistence, might すぐに even with much いっそう少なく art and 技術 be able to work as cheap as the like artificers and 製造業者s of such 商業の 明言する／公表するs who had both to bring from a 広大な／多数の／重要な distance. Even though, from want of art and 技術, they might not for some time be able to work as cheap, yet, finding a market at home, they might be able to sell their work there as cheap as that of the artificers and 製造業者s of such 商業の 明言する／公表するs, which could not be brought to that market but from so 広大な／多数の／重要な a distance; and as their art and 技術 改善するd, they would soon be able to sell it cheaper. The artificers and 製造業者s of such 商業の 明言する／公表するs, therefore, would すぐに be rivalled in the market of those landed nations, and soon after undersold and jostled out of it altogether. The cheapness of the 製造（する）s of those landed nations, in consequence of the 漸進的な 改良s of art and 技術, would, in 予定 time, 延長する their sale beyond the home market, and carry them to many foreign markets, from which they would in the same manner 徐々に jostle out many of the 製造業者s of such 商業の nations.

This continual 増加する both of the rude and 製造（する）d produce of those landed nations would in 予定 time create a greater 資本／首都 than could, with the ordinary 率 of 利益（をあげる）, be 雇うd either in 農業 or in 製造（する）s. The 黒字／過剰 of this 資本／首都 would 自然に turn itself to foreign 貿易（する）, and be 雇うd in 輸出（する）ing to foreign countries such parts of the rude and 製造（する）d produce of its own country as 越えるd the 需要・要求する of the home market. In the exportation of the produce of their own country, the merchants of a landed nation would have an advantage of the same 肉親，親類d over those of 商業の nations which its artificers and 製造業者s had over the artificers and 製造業者s of such nations; the advantage of finding at home that 貨物 and those 蓄える／店s and 準備／条項s which the others were 強いるd to 捜し出す for at a distance. With inferior art and 技術 in 航海, therefore, they would be able to sell that 貨物 as cheap in foreign markets as the merchants of such 商業の nations; and with equal art and 技術 they would be able to sell it cheaper. They would soon, therefore, 競争相手 those 商業の nations in this 支店 of foreign 貿易（する）, and in 予定 time would jostle them out of it altogether.

によれば this 自由主義の and generous system, therefore, the most advantageous method in which a landed nation can raise up artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants of its own is to 認める the most perfect freedom of 貿易（する） to the artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants of all other nations. It その為に raises the value of the 黒字／過剰 produce of its own land, of which the continual 増加する 徐々に 設立するs a 基金, which in 予定 time やむを得ず raises up all the artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants whom it has occasion for.

When a landed nation, on the contrary, 抑圧するs either by high 義務s or by 禁止s the 貿易（する） of foreign nations, it やむを得ず 傷つけるs its own 利益／興味 in two different ways. First, by raising the price of all foreign goods and of all sorts of 製造（する）s, it やむを得ず 沈むs the real value of the 黒字／過剰 produce of its own land, with which, or, what comes to the same thing, with the price of which it 購入（する）s those foreign goods and 製造（する）s. Secondly, by giving a sort of monopoly of the home market to its own merchants, artificers, and 製造業者s, it raises the 率 of 商業の and 製造業の 利益（をあげる） in 割合 to that of 農業の 利益（をあげる）, and その結果 either draws from 農業 a part of the 資本／首都 which had before been 雇うd in it, or 妨げるs from going to it a part of what would さもなければ have gone to it. This 政策, therefore, discourages 農業 in two different ways; first, by 沈むing the real value of its produce, and その為に lowering the 率 of its 利益（をあげる）; and, secondly, by raising the 率 of 利益（をあげる） in all other 雇用s. 農業 is （判決などを）下すd いっそう少なく advantageous, and 貿易（する） and 製造（する）s more advantageous than they さもなければ would be; and every man is tempted by his own 利益／興味 to turn, as much as he can, both his 資本／首都 and his 産業 from the former to the latter 雇用s.

Though, by this oppressive 政策, a landed nation should be able to raise up artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants of its own somewhat sooner than it could do by the freedom of 貿易（する） a 事柄, however, which is not a little doubtful- yet it would raise them up, if one may say so, 未熟に, and before it was perfectly 熟した for them. By raising up too あわてて one 種類 of 産業, it would depress another more 価値のある 種類 of 産業. By raising up too あわてて a 種類 of 産業 which only 取って代わるs the 在庫／株 which 雇うs it, together with the ordinary 利益（をあげる）, it would depress a 種類 of 産業 which, over and above 取って代わるing that 在庫／株 with its 利益（をあげる）, affords likewise a 逮捕する produce, a 解放する／自由な rent to the landlord. It would depress 生産力のある 労働, by encouraging too あわてて that 労働 which is altogether barren and unproductive.

In what manner, によれば this system, the sum total of the 年次の produce of the land is 分配するd の中で the three classes above について言及するd, and in what manner the 労働 of the unproductive class does no more than 取って代わる the value of its own 消費, without 増加するing in any 尊敬（する）・点 the value of that sum total, is 代表するd by Mr. Quesnai, the very ingenious and 深遠な author of this system, in some arithmetical formularies. The first of these formularies, which by way of eminence he peculiarly distinguishes by the 指名する of the Economical （米）棚上げする／（英）提議する, 代表するs the manner in which he supposes the 配当 takes place in a 明言する／公表する of the most perfect liberty and therefore of the highest 繁栄- in a 明言する／公表する where the 年次の produce is such as to afford the greatest possible 逮捕する produce, and where each class enjoys its proper 株 of the whole 年次の produce. Some その後の formularies 代表する the manner in which he supposes this 配当 is made in different 明言する／公表するs of 抑制 and 規則; in which either the class of proprietors or the barren and unproductive class is more favoured than the class of cultivators, and in which either the one or the other encroaches more or いっそう少なく upon the 株 which ought 適切に to belong to this 生産力のある class. Every such encroachment, every 違反 of that natural 配当, which the most perfect liberty would 設立する, must, によれば this system, やむを得ず degrade more or いっそう少なく, from one year to another, the value and sum total of the 年次の produce, and must やむを得ず occasion a 漸進的な declension in the real wealth and 歳入 of the society; a declension of which the 進歩 must be quicker or slower, によれば the degree of this encroachment, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as that natural 配当 which the most perfect liberty would 設立する is more or いっそう少なく 侵害する／違反するd. Those その後の formularies 代表する the different degrees of declension which, によれば this system, correspond to the different degrees in which this natural 配当 is 侵害する／違反するd.

Some 思索的な 内科医s seem to have imagined that the health of the human 団体／死体 could be 保存するd only by a 確かな 正確な regimen of diet and 演習, of which every, the smallest, 違反 やむを得ず occasioned some degree of 病気 or disorder 割合d to the degree of the 違反. Experience, however, would seem to show that the human 団体／死体 frequently 保存するs, to all 外見s at least, the most perfect 明言する／公表する of health under a 広大な variety of different regimens; even under some which are 一般に believed to be very far from 存在 perfectly wholesome. But the healthful 明言する／公表する of the human 団体／死体, it would seem, 含む／封じ込めるs in itself some unknown 原則 of 保護, 有能な either of 妨げるing or of 訂正するing, in many 尊敬（する）・点s, the bad 影響s even of a very 欠陥のある regimen. Mr. Quesnai, who was himself a 内科医, and a very 思索的な 内科医, seems to have entertained a notion of the same 肉親，親類d 関心ing the political 団体／死体, and to have imagined that it would 栄える and 栄える only under a 確かな 正確な regimen, the exact regimen of perfect liberty and perfect 司法（官）. He seems not to have considered that, in the political 団体／死体, the natural 成果／努力 which every man is continually making to better his own 条件 is a 原則 of 保護 有能な of 妨げるing and 訂正するing, in many 尊敬（する）・点s, the bad 影響s of a political economy, in some degree, both 部分的な／不平等な and oppressive. Such a political economy, though it no 疑問 retards more or いっそう少なく, is not always 有能な of stopping altogether the natural 進歩 of a nation に向かって wealth and 繁栄, and still いっそう少なく of making it go backwards. If a nation could not 栄える without the enjoyment of perfect liberty and perfect 司法（官）, there is not in the world a nation which could ever have 栄えるd. In the political 団体／死体, however, the 知恵 of nature has fortunately made ample 準備／条項 for 治療（薬）ing many of the bad 影響s of the folly and 不正 of man, in the same manner as it has done in the natural 団体／死体 for 治療（薬）ing those of his sloth and intemperance.

The 資本／首都 error of this system, however, seems to 嘘（をつく） in its 代表するing the class of artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants as altogether barren and unproductive. The に引き続いて 観察s may serve to show the impropriety of this 代表.

First, this class, it is 定評のある, 再生するs 毎年 the value of its own 年次の 消費, and continues, at least, the 存在 of the 在庫／株 or 資本／首都 which 持続するs and 雇うs it. But upon this account alone the denomination of barren or unproductive should seem to be very improperly 適用するd to it. We should not call a marriage barren or unproductive though it produced only a son and a daughter, to 取って代わる the father and mother, and though it did not 増加する the number of the human 種類, but only continued it as it was before. 農業者s and country labourers, indeed, over and above the 在庫／株 which 持続するs and 雇うs them, 再生する 毎年 a 逮捕する produce, a 解放する／自由な rent to the landlord. As a marriage which affords three children is certainly more 生産力のある than one which affords only two; so the 労働 of 農業者s and country labourers is certainly more 生産力のある than that of merchants, artificers, and 製造業者s. The superior produce of the one class, however, does not （判決などを）下す the other barren or unproductive.

Secondly, it seems, upon this account, altogether 妥当でない to consider artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants in the same light as menial servants. The 労働 of menial servants does not continue the 存在 of the 基金 which 持続するs and 雇うs them. Their 維持／整備 and 雇用 is altogether at the expense of their masters, and the work which they 成し遂げる is not of a nature to 返す that expense. That work consists in services which 死なせる／死ぬ 一般に in the very instant of their 業績／成果, and does not 直す／買収する，八百長をする or realize itself in any vendible 商品／必需品 which can 取って代わる the value of their 給料 and 維持／整備. The 労働, on the contrary, of artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants 自然に does 直す／買収する，八百長をする and realize itself in some such vendible 商品／必需品. It is upon this account that, in the 一時期／支部 in which I 扱う／治療する of 生産力のある and unproductive 労働, I have classed artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants の中で the 生産力のある labourers, and menial servants の中で the barren or unproductive.

Thirdly, it seems upon every supposition 妥当でない to say that the 労働 of artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants does not 増加する the real 歳入 of the society. Though we should suppose, for example, as it seems to be supposed in this system, that the value of the daily, 月毎の, and 年一回の 消費 of this class was 正確に／まさに equal to that of its daily, 月毎の, and 年一回の 生産／産物, yet it would not from thence follow that its 労働 追加するd nothing to the real 歳入, to the real value of the 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of the society. An artificer, for example, who, in the first six months after 収穫, 遂行する／発効させるs ten 続けざまに猛撃するs' 価値（がある） of work, though he should in the same time 消費する ten 続けざまに猛撃するs' 価値（がある） of corn and other necessaries, yet really 追加するs the value of ten 続けざまに猛撃するs to the 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of the society. While he has been 消費するing a half-年一回の 歳入 of ten 続けざまに猛撃するs' 価値（がある） of corn and other necessaries, he has produced an equal value of work 有能な of 購入（する）ing, either to himself or some other person, an equal half-年一回の 歳入. The value, therefore, of what has been 消費するd and produced during these six months is equal, not to ten, but to twenty 続けざまに猛撃するs. It is possible, indeed, that no more than ten 続けざまに猛撃するs' 価値（がある） of this value may ever have 存在するd at any one moment of time. But if the ten 続けざまに猛撃するs' 価値（がある） of corn and other necessaties, which were 消費するd by the artificer, had been 消費するd by a 兵士 or by a menial servant, the value of that part of the 年次の produce which 存在するd at the end of the six months would have been ten 続けざまに猛撃するs いっそう少なく than it 現実に is in consequence of the 労働 of the artificer. Though the value of what the artificer produces, therefore, should not at any one moment of time be supposed greater than the value he 消費するs, yet at every moment of time the 現実に 存在するing value of goods in the market is, in consequence of what he produces, greater than it さもなければ would be.

When the patrons of this system 主張する that the 消費 of artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants is equal to the value of what they produce, they probably mean no more than that their 歳入, or the 基金 運命にあるd for their 消費, is equal to it. But if they had 表明するd themselves more 正確に, and only 主張するd that the 歳入 of this class was equal to the value of what they produced, it might readily have occurred to the reader that what would 自然に be saved out of this 歳入 must やむを得ず 増加する more or いっそう少なく the real wealth of the society. In order, therefore, to make out something like an argument, it was necessary that they should 表明する themselves as they have done; and this argument, even supposing things 現実に were as it seems to 推定する them to be, turns out to be a very 十分な説得力のない one.

Fourthly, 農業者s and country labourers can no more augment, without parsimony, the real 歳入, the 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of their society, than artificers, 製造業者s, and merchants. The 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of any society can be augmented only in two ways; either, first, by some 改良 in the 生産力のある 力／強力にするs of the useful 労働 現実に 持続するd within it; or, secondly, by some 増加する in the 量 of that 労働.

The 改良 in the 生産力のある 力／強力にするs of useful 労働 depend, first, upon the 改良 in the ability of the workman; and, secondly, upon that of the 機械／機構 with which he 作品. But the 労働 of artificers and 製造業者s, as it is 有能な of 存在 more subdivided, and the 労働 of each workman 減ずるd to a greater 簡単 of 操作／手術 than that of 農業者s and country labourers, so it is likewise 有能な of both these sorts of 改良s in a much higher degree. In this 尊敬（する）・点, therefore, the class of cultivators can have no sort of advantage over that of artificers and 製造業者s.

The 増加する in the 量 of useful 労働 現実に 雇うd within any society must depend altogether upon the 増加する of the 資本／首都 which 雇うs it; and the 増加する of that 資本／首都 again must be 正確に／まさに equal to the 量 of the 貯金 from the 歳入, either of the particular persons who manage and direct the 雇用 of that 資本／首都, or of some other persons who lend it to them. If merchants, artificers, and 製造業者s are, as this system seems to suppose, 自然に more inclined to parsimony and saving than proprietors and cultivators, they are, so far, more likely to augment the 量 of useful 労働 雇うd within their society, and その結果 to 増加する its real 歳入, the 年次の produce of its land and 労働.

Fifthly and lastly, though the 歳入 of the inhabitants of every country was supposed to consist altogether, as this system seems to suppose, in the 量 of subsistence which their 産業 could procure to them; yet, even upon this supposition, the 歳入 of a 貿易（する）ing and 製造業の country must, other things 存在 equal, always be much greater than that of one without 貿易（する） or 製造（する）s. By means of 貿易（する） and 製造（する）s, a greater 量 of subsistence can be 毎年 輸入するd into a particular country than what its own lands, in the actual 明言する／公表する of their cultivation, could afford. The inhabitants of a town, though they frequently 所有する no lands of their own, yet draw to themselves by their 産業 such a 量 of the rude produce of the lands of other people as 供給（する）s them, not only with the 構成要素s of their work, but with the 基金 of their subsistence. What a town always is with regard to the country in its neighbourhood, one 独立した・無所属 明言する／公表する or country may frequently be with regard to other 独立した・無所属 明言する／公表するs or countries. It is thus that Holland draws a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of its subsistence from other countries; live cattle from Holstein and Jutland, and corn from almost all the different countries of Europe. A small 量 of 製造（する）d produce 購入（する）s a 広大な／多数の／重要な 量 of rude produce. A 貿易（する）ing and 製造業の country, therefore, 自然に 購入（する）s with a small part of its 製造（する）d produce a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the rude produce of other countries; while, on the contrary, a country without 貿易（する） and 製造（する）s is 一般に 強いるd to 購入（する）, at the expense of a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of its rude produce, a very small part of the 製造（する）d produce of other countries. The one 輸出（する）s what can subsist and 融通する but a very few, and 輸入するs the subsistence and accommodation of a 広大な／多数の／重要な number. The other 輸出（する）s the accommodation and subsistence of a 広大な／多数の／重要な number, and 輸入するs that of a very few only. The inhabitants of the one must always enjoy a much greater 量 of subsistence t han what their own lands, in the actual 明言する／公表する of their cultivation, could afford. The inhabitants of the other must always enjoy a much smaller 量.

This system, however, with all its imperfections is, perhaps, the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been published upon the 支配する of political economy, and is upon that account 井戸／弁護士席 価値（がある） the consideration of every man who wishes to 診察する with attention the 原則s of that very important science. Though in 代表するing the 労働 which is 雇うd upon land as the only 生産力のある 労働, the notions which it inculcates are perhaps too 狭くする and 限定するd; yet in 代表するing the wealth of nations as consisting, not in the unconsumable riches of money, but in the consumable goods 毎年 再生するd by the 労働 of the society, and in 代表するing perfect liberty as the only effectual expedient for （判決などを）下すing this 年次の reproduction the greatest possible, its doctrine seems to be in every 尊敬（する）・点 as just as it is generous and 自由主義の. Its 信奉者s are very 非常に／多数の; and as men are fond of paradoxes, and of appearing to understand what より勝るs the comprehension of ordinary people, the paradox which it 持続するs, 関心ing the unproductive nature of 製造業の 労働, has not perhaps 与える／捧げるd a little to 増加する the number of its admirers. They have for some years past made a pretty かなりの sect, distinguished in the French 共和国 of letters by the 指名する of The 経済学者s. Their 作品 have certainly been of some service to their country; not only by bringing into general discussion many 支配するs which had never been 井戸／弁護士席 診察するd before, but by 影響（力）ing in some 手段 the public 行政 in favour of 農業. It has been in consequence of their 代表s, accordingly, that the 農業 of フラン has been 配達するd from several of the 圧迫s which it before 労働d under. The 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 during which such a 賃貸し（する） can be 認めるd, as will be valid against every 未来 purchaser or proprietor of the land, has been 長引かせるd from nine to twenty-seven years. The 古代の 地方の 抑制s upon the transportation of corn from one 州 of the kingdom to an other have been 完全に taken away, and the liberty of 輸出（する）ing it to all foreign countries has been 設立するd as the ありふれた 法律 of the kingdom in all ordinary 事例／患者s. This sect, in their 作品, which are very 非常に／多数の, and which 扱う／治療する not only of what is 適切に called Political Economy, or of the nature and 原因（となる）s of the wealth of nations, but of every other 支店 of the system of civil 政府, all follow 暗黙に and without any sensible variation, the doctrine of Mr. Quesnai. There is upon this account little variety in the greater part of their 作品. The most 際立った and best connected account of this doctrine is to be 設立する in a little 調書をとる／予約する written by Mr. Mercier de la Riviere, some time intendant of Martinico, する権利を与えるd, The Natural and 必須の Order of Political Societies. The 賞賛 of this whole sect for their master, who was himself a man of the greatest modesty and 簡単, is not inferior to that of any of the 古代の philosophers for the 創立者s of their 各々の systems. "There have been, since the world began," says a very diligent and respectable author, the Marquis de Mirabeau, "three 広大な／多数の／重要な 発明s which have principally given 安定 to political societies, 独立した・無所属 of many other 発明s which have 濃厚にするd and adorned them. The first is the 発明 of 令状ing, which alone gives human nature the 力／強力にする of transmitting, without alteration, its 法律s, its 契約s, its annals, and its 発見s. The second is the 発明 of money, which 貯蔵所d together all the relations between civilised societies. The third is the Economical （米）棚上げする／（英）提議する, the result of the other two, which 完全にするs them both by perfecting their 反対する; the 広大な／多数の／重要な 発見 of our age, but of which our posterity will 得る the 利益."

As the political economy of the nations of modern Europe has been more favourable to 製造（する）s and foreign 貿易（する）, the 産業 of the towns, than to 農業, the 産業 of the country; so that of other nations has followed a different 計画（する）, and has been more favourable to 農業 than to 製造（する）s and foreign 貿易（する）.

The 政策 of 中国 favours 農業 more than all other 雇用s. In 中国 the 条件 of a labourer is said to be as much superior to that of an artificer as in most parts of Europe that of an artificer is to that of a labourer. In 中国, the 広大な／多数の／重要な ambition of every man is to get 所有／入手 of some little bit of land, either in 所有物／資産／財産 or in 賃貸し（する）; and 賃貸し（する）s are there said to be 認めるd upon very 穏健な 条件, and to be 十分に 安全な・保証するd to the lessees. The Chinese have little 尊敬（する）・点 for foreign 貿易（する）. Your beggarly 商業! was the language in which the 蜜柑s of Pekin used to talk to Mr. de Lange, the ロシアの （外交）使節／代表, 関心ing it. Except with Japan, the Chinese carry on, themselves, and in their own 底（に届く）s, little or no foreign 貿易（する）; and it is only into one or two ports of their kingdom that they even 収容する／認める the ships of foreign nations. Foreign 貿易（する） therefore is, in 中国, every way 限定するd within a much narrower circle than that to which it would 自然に 延長する itself, if more freedom was 許すd to it, either in their own ships, or in those of foreign nations.

製造（する）s, as in a small 本体，大部分／ばら積みの they frequently 含む／封じ込める a 広大な／多数の／重要な value, and can upon that account be 輸送（する）d at いっそう少なく expense from one country to another than most parts of rude produce, are, in almost all countries, the 主要な／長／主犯 support of foreign 貿易（する）. In countries, besides, いっそう少なく 広範囲にわたる and いっそう少なく favourably circumstanced for inferior 商業 than 中国, they 一般に 要求する the support of foreign 貿易（する）. Without an 広範囲にわたる foreign market they could not 井戸／弁護士席 繁栄する, either in countries so moderately 広範囲にわたる as to afford but a 狭くする home market or in countries where the communication between one 州 and another was so difficult as to （判決などを）下す it impossible for the goods of any particular place to enjoy the whole of that home market which the country could afford. The perfection of 製造業の 産業, it must be remembered, depends altogether upon the 分割 of 労働; and the degree to which the 分割 of 労働 can be introduced into any 製造（する） is やむを得ず 規制するd, it has already been shown, by the extent of the market. But the 広大な／多数の／重要な extent of the empire of 中国, the 広大な multitude of its inhabitants, the variety of 気候, and その結果 of 生産／産物s in its different 州s, and the 平易な communication by means of water carriage between the greater part of them, （判決などを）下す the home market of that country of so 広大な／多数の／重要な extent as to be alone 十分な to support very 広大な／多数の／重要な 製造（する）s, and to 収容する／認める of very かなりの subdivisions of 労働. The home market of 中国 is, perhaps, in extent, not much inferior to the market of all the different countries of Europe put together. A more 広範囲にわたる foreign 貿易（する）, however, which to this 広大な／多数の／重要な home market 追加するd the foreign market of all the 残り／休憩（する） of the world- 特に if any かなりの part of this 貿易（する） was carried on in Chinese ships- could 不十分な fail to 増加する very much the 製造（する）s of 中国, and to 改善する very much the 生産力のある 力／強力にするs of its 製造業の 産業. By a more 広範囲にわたる 航海, the Chinese wou ld 自然に learn the art of using and 建設するing themselves all the different machines made use of in other countries, 同様に as the other 改良s of art and 産業 which are practised in all the different parts of the world. Upon their 現在の 計画（する） they have little 適切な時期 except that of the Japanese.

The 政策 of 古代の Egypt too, and that of the Gentoo 政府 of Indostan, seem to have favoured 農業 more than all other 雇用s.

Both in 古代の Egypt and Indostan the whole 団体／死体 of the people was divided into different castes or tribes, each of which was 限定するd, from father to son, to a particular 雇用 or class of 雇用s. The son of a priest was やむを得ず a priest; the son of a 兵士, a 兵士; the son of a labourer, a labourer; the son of a weaver, a weaver; the son of a tailor, a tailor, etc. In both countries, the caste of the priests held the highest 階級, and that of the 兵士s the next; and in both countries, the caste of the 農業者s and labourers was superior to the castes of merchants and 製造業者s.

The 政府 of both countries was 特に attentive to the 利益／興味 of 農業. The 作品 建設するd by the 古代の 君主s of Egypt for the proper 配当 of the waters of the Nile were famous in antiquity; and the 廃虚d remains of some of them are still the 賞賛 of travellers. Those of the same 肉親，親類d which were 建設するd by the 古代の 君主s of Indostan for the proper 配当 of the waters of the ギャング（団）s 同様に as of many other rivers, though they have been いっそう少なく celebrated, seem to have been 平等に 広大な／多数の／重要な. Both countries, accordingly, though 支配する occasionally to dearths, have been famous for their 広大な／多数の／重要な fertility. Though both were 極端に populous, yet, in years of 穏健な plenty, they were both able to 輸出（する） 広大な／多数の／重要な 量s of 穀物 to their 隣人s.

The 古代の Egyptians had a superstitious aversion to the sea; and as the Gentoo 宗教 does not 許す its 信奉者s to light a 解雇する／砲火／射撃, nor その結果 to dress any victuals upon the water, it in 影響 禁じるs them from all distant sea voyages. Both the Egyptians and Indians must have depended almost altogether upon the 航海 of other nations for the exportation of their 黒字／過剰 produce; and this dependency, as it must have 限定するd the market, so it must have discouraged the 増加する of this 黒字／過剰 produce. It must have discouraged, too, the 増加する of the 製造（する）d produce more than that of the rude produce. 製造（する）s 要求する a much more 広範囲にわたる market than the most important parts of the rude produce of the land. A 選び出す／独身 shoemaker will make more than three hundred pairs of shoes in the year; and his own family will not, perhaps, wear out six pairs. Unless therefore he has the custom of at least fifty such families as his own, he cannot 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of the whole produce of his own 労働. The most 非常に／多数の class of artificers will seldom, in a large country, make more than one in fifty or one in a hundred of the whole number of families 含む／封じ込めるd in it. But in such large countries as フラン and England, the number of people 雇うd in 農業 has by some authors been 計算するd at a half, by others at a third, and by no author that I know of, at いっそう少なく than a fifth of the whole inhabitants of the country. But as the produce of the 農業 of both フラン and England is, the far greater part of it, 消費するd at home, each person 雇うd in it must, によれば these computations, 要求する little more than the custom of one, two, or at most, of four such families as his own ーするために 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of the whole produce of his own 労働. 農業, therefore, can support itself under the discouragement of a 限定するd market much better than 製造（する）s. In both 古代の Egypt and Indostan, indeed, the confinement of the foreign market was in some 手段 補償するd by the conveniency of many inl and 航海s, which opened, in the most advantageous manner, the whole extent of the home market to every part of the produce of every different 地区 of those countries. The 広大な／多数の／重要な extent of Indostan, too, （判決などを）下すd the home market of that country very 広大な／多数の／重要な, and 十分な to support a 広大な／多数の／重要な variety of 製造（する）s. But the small extent of 古代の Egypt, which was never equal to England, must at all times have （判決などを）下すd the home market of that country too 狭くする for supporting any 広大な／多数の／重要な variety of 製造（する）s. Bengal, accordingly, the 州 of Indostan, which 一般的に 輸出（する）s the greatest 量 of rice, has always been more remarkable for the exportation of a 広大な／多数の／重要な variety of 製造（する）s than for that of its 穀物. 古代の Egypt, on the contrary, though it 輸出（する）d some 製造（する）s, 罰金 linen in particular, 同様に as some other goods, was always most distinguished for its 広大な／多数の／重要な exportation of 穀物. It was long the granary of the Roman empire.

The 君主s of 中国, of 古代の Egypt, and of the different kingdoms into which Indostan has at different times been divided, have always derived the whole, or by far the most かなりの part, of their 歳入 from some sort of land 税金 or land rent. This land 税金 or land rent, like the tithe in Europe, consisted in a 確かな 割合, a fifth, it is said, of the produce of the land, which was either 配達するd in 肉親，親類d, or paid in money, によれば a 確かな valuation, and which therefore 変化させるd from year to year によれば all the variations of the produce. It was natural therefore that the 君主s of those countries should be 特に attentive to the 利益／興味s of 農業, upon the 繁栄 or declension of which すぐに depended the 年一回の 増加する or diminution of their own 歳入.

The 政策 of the 古代の 共和国s of Greece, and that of Rome, though it honoured 農業 more than 製造（する）s or foreign 貿易（する）, yet seems rather to have discouraged the latter 雇用s than to have given any direct or intentional 激励 to the former. In several of the 古代の 明言する／公表するs of Greece, foreign 貿易（する） was 禁じるd altogether; and in several others the 雇用s of artificers and 製造業者s were considered as hurtful to the strength and agility of the human 団体／死体, as （判決などを）下すing it incapable of those habits which their 軍の and 体操の 演習s endeavoured to form in it, and as その為に disqualifying it more or いっそう少なく for を受けるing the 疲労，（軍の）雑役s and 遭遇（する）ing the dangers of war. Such 占領／職業s were considered as fit only for slaves, and the 解放する／自由な 国民s of the 明言する／公表する were 禁じるd from 演習ing them. Even in those 明言する／公表するs where no such 禁止 took place, as in Rome and Athens, the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people were in 影響 除外するd from all the 貿易（する）s which are, now 一般的に 演習d by the lower sort of the inhabitants of towns. Such 貿易（する）s were, at Athens and Rome, all 占領するd by the slaves of the rich, who 演習d them for the 利益 of their masters, whose wealth, 力／強力にする, and 保護 made it almost impossible for a poor freeman to find a market for his work, when it （機の）カム into 競争 with that of the slaves of the rich. Slaves, however, are very seldom inventive; and all the most important 改良s, either in 機械／機構, or in the 協定 and 配当 of work which 容易にする and abridge 労働, have been the 発見s of freemen. Should a slave 提案する any 改良 of this 肉親，親類d, his master would be very apt to consider the 提案 as the suggestion of laziness, and a 願望（する） to save his own 労働 at the master's expense. The poor slave, instead of reward, would probably 会合，会う with much 乱用, perhaps with some 罰. In the 製造（する）s carried on by slaves, therefore, more 労働 must 一般に have been 雇うd to 遂行する／発効させる the same 量 of work than in those carried on by freemen. The work of the former must, upon that account, 一般に have been dearer than that of the latter. The Hungarian 地雷s, it is 発言／述べるd by Mr. Montesquieu, though not richer, have always been wrought with いっそう少なく expense, and therefore with more 利益（をあげる）, than the Turkish 地雷s in their neighbourhood. The Turkish 地雷s are wrought by slaves; and the 武器 of those slaves are the only machines which the Turks have ever thought of 雇うing. The Hungarian 地雷s are wrought by freemen, who 雇う a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 of 機械／機構, by which they 容易にする and abridge their own 労働. From the very little that is known about the price of 製造（する）s in the times of the Greeks and Romans, it would appear that those of the finer sort were 過度に dear. Silk sold for its 負わせる in gold. It was not, indeed, in those times a European 製造（する）; and as it was all brought from the East Indies, the distance of the carriage may in some 手段 account for the greatness of price. The price, however, which a lady, it is said, would いつかs 支払う／賃金 for a piece of very 罰金 linen, seems to have been 平等に extravagant; and as linen was always either a European, or at farthest, an Egyptian 製造（する）, this high price can be accounted for only by the 広大な／多数の／重要な expense of the 労働 which must have been 雇うd about it, and the expense of this 労働 again could arise from nothing but the awkwardness of the 機械／機構 which it made use of. The price of 罰金 woollens too, though not やめる so extravagant, seems however to have been much above that of the 現在の times. Some cloths, we are told by Pliny, dyed in a particular manner, cost a hundred denarii, or three 続けざまに猛撃するs six shillings and eightpence the 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる. Others dyed in another manner cost a thousand denarii the 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる, or thirty-three 続けざまに猛撃するs six shillings and eightpence. The Roman 続けざまに猛撃する, it must be remembered, 含む／封じ込めるd only twelve of our avoirdupois ounces. This high price, indeed, seems to have been principally 借りがあるing to the dye. But had not the cloths themselves been much dearer than any which are made in the 現在の times, so very expensive a dye would not probably have been bestowed upon them. The disproportion would have been too 広大な／多数の／重要な between the value of the 従犯者 and that of the 主要な／長／主犯. The price について言及するd by the same author of some Triclinaria, a sort of woollen pillows or cushions made use of to lean upon as they reclined upon their couches at （米）棚上げする／（英）提議する, passes all 信用性; some of them 存在 said to have cost more than thirty thousand, others more than three hundred thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs. This high price, too, is not said to have arisen from the dye. In the dress of the people of fashion of both sexes there seems to have been much いっそう少なく variety, it is 観察するd by Doctor Arbuthnot, in 古代の than in modern times; and the very little variety which we find in that of the 古代の statues 確認するs his 観察. He infers from this that their dress must upon the whole have been cheaper than ours; but the 結論 does not seem to follow. When the expense of 流行の／上流の dress is very 広大な／多数の／重要な, the variety must be very small. But when, by the 改良s in the 生産力のある 力／強力にするs of 製造業の art and 産業, the expense of any one dress comes to be very 穏健な, the variety will 自然に be very 広大な／多数の／重要な. The rich, not 存在 able to distinguish themselves by the expense of any one dress, will 自然に endeavour to do so by the multitude and variety of their dresses.

The greatest and most important 支店 of the 商業 of every nation, it has already been 観察するd, is that which is carried on between the inhabitants of the town and those of the country. The inhabitants of the town draw from the country the rude produce which 構成するs both the 構成要素s of their work and the 基金 of their subsistence; and they 支払う／賃金 for this rude produce by sending 支援する to the country a 確かな 部分 of it 製造（する）d and 用意が出来ている for 即座の use. The 貿易（する） which is carried on between these two different 始める，決めるs of people consists 最終的に in a 確かな 量 of rude produce 交流d for a 確かな 量 of 製造（する）d produce. The dearer the latter, therefore, the cheaper the former; and whatever tends in any country to raise the price of 製造（する）d produce tends to lower that of the rude produce of the land, and その為に to discourage 農業. The smaller the 量 of 製造（する）d produce which in any given 量 of rude produce, or, what comes to the same thing, which the price of any given 量 of rude produce is 有能な of 購入（する）ing, the smaller the exchangeable value of that given 量 of rude produce, the smaller the 激励 which either the landlord has to 増加する its 量 by 改善するing or the 農業者 by cultivating the land. Whatever, besides, tends to 減らす in any country the number of artificers and 製造業者s, tends to 減らす the home market, the most important of all markets for the rude produce of the land, and その為に still その上の to discourage 農業.

Those systems, therefore, which, preferring 農業 to all other 雇用s, ーするために 促進する it, 課す 抑制s upon 製造（する）s and foreign 貿易（する）, 行為／法令／行動する contrary to the very end which they 提案する, and 間接に discourage that very 種類 of 産業 which they mean to 促進する. They are so far, perhaps, more inconsistent than even the 商業の system. That system, by encouraging 製造（する）s and foreign 貿易（する） more than 農業, turns a 確かな 部分 of the 資本／首都 of the society from supporting a more advantageous, to support a いっそう少なく advantageous 種類 of 産業. But still it really and in the end encourages that 種類 of 産業 which it means to 促進する. Those 農業の systems, on the contrary, really and in the end discourage their own favourite 種類 of 産業.

It is thus that every system which endeavours, either by 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 激励s to draw に向かって a particular 種類 of 産業 a greater 株 of the 資本／首都 of the society than what would 自然に go to it, or, by 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 抑制s, 軍隊 from a particular 種類 of 産業 some 株 of the 資本／首都 which would さもなければ be 雇うd in it, is in reality 破壊分子 of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 目的 which it means to 促進する. It retards, instead of 加速するing, the 進歩 of the society に向かって real wealth and greatness; and 減らすs, instead of 増加するing, the real value of the 年次の produce of its land and 労働.

All systems either of preference or of 抑制, therefore, 存在 thus 完全に taken away, the obvious and simple system of natural liberty 設立するs itself of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える. Every man, as long as he does not 侵害する／違反する the 法律s of 司法（官）, is left perfectly 解放する／自由な to 追求する his own 利益／興味 his own way, and to bring both his 産業 and 資本／首都 into 競争 with those of any other man, or order of men. The 君主 is 完全に 発射する／解雇するd from a 義務, in the 試みる／企てるing to 成し遂げる which he must always be exposed to innumerable delusions, and for the proper 業績／成果 of which no human 知恵 or knowledge could ever be 十分な; the 義務 of superintending the 産業 of 私的な people, and of directing it に向かって the 雇用s most suitable to the 利益／興味 of the society. によれば the system of natural liberty, the 君主 has only three 義務s to …に出席する to; three 義務s of 広大な／多数の／重要な importance, indeed, but plain and intelligible to ありふれた understandings: first, the 義務 of 保護するing the society from 暴力／激しさ and 侵略 of other 独立した・無所属 societies; secondly, the 義務 of 保護するing, as far as possible, every member of the society from the 不正 or 圧迫 of every other member of it, or the 義務 of 設立するing an exact 行政 of 司法（官）; and, thirdly, the 義務 of 築くing and 持続するing 確かな public 作品 and 確かな public 会・原則s which it can never be for the 利益／興味 of any individual, or small number of individuals, to 築く and 持続する; because the 利益（をあげる） could never 返す the expense to any individual or small number of individuals, though it may frequently do much more than 返す it to a 広大な／多数の／重要な society.

The proper 業績／成果 of those several 義務s of the 君主 やむを得ず supposes a 確かな expense; and this expense again やむを得ず 要求するs a 確かな 歳入 to support it. In the に引き続いて 調書をとる／予約する, therefore, I shall endeavour to explain, first, what are the necessary expenses of the 君主 or 連邦／共和国; and which of those expenses せねばならない be defrayed by the general 出資／貢献 of the whole society; and which of them by that of some particular part only, or of some particular members of the society; secondly, what are the different methods in which the whole society may be made to 与える／捧げる に向かって defraying the expenses 現職の on the whole society, and what are the 主要な／長／主犯 advantages and inconveniences of each of those methods; and thirdly, what are the 推論する／理由s and 原因（となる）s which have induced almost all modern 政府s to mortgage some part of this 歳入, or to 契約 負債s, and what have been the 影響s of those 負債s upon the real wealth, the 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of the society. The に引き続いて 調書をとる／予約する, therefore, will 自然に be divided into three 一時期／支部s.