調書をとる／予約する Three, 一時期／支部s I-IV

• I. Of the Natural 進歩 of Opulence
  
• II. Of the Discouragement of 農業 in the 古代の 明言する／公表する of Europe after the 落ちる of the Roman Empire
  
• III. Of the Rise and 進歩 of Cities and Towns, after the 落ちる of the Roman Empire
  
• IV. How the 商業 of the Towns 与える／捧げるd to the 改良 of the Country

As subsistence is, in the nature of things, 事前の to conveniency and 高級な, so the 産業 which procures the former must やむを得ず be 事前の to that which 大臣s to the latter. The cultivation and 改良 of the country, therefore, which affords subsistence, must, やむを得ず, be 事前の to the 増加する of the town, which furnishes only the means of conveniency and 高級な. It is the 黒字／過剰 produce of the country only, or what is over and above the 維持／整備 of the cultivators, that 構成するs the subsistence of the town, which can therefore 増加する only with the 増加する of this 黒字／過剰 produce. The town, indeed, may not always derive its whole subsistence from the country in its neighbourhood, or even from the 領土 to which it belongs, but from very distant countries; and this, though it forms no exception from the general 支配する, has occasioned かなりの variations in the 進歩 of opulence in different ages and nations.

That order of things which necessity 課すs in general, though not in every particular country, is, in every particular country, 促進するd by the natural inclinations of man. If human 会・原則s had never 妨害するd those natural inclinations, the towns could nowhere have 増加するd beyond what the 改良 and cultivation of the 領土 in which they were 据えるd could support; till such time, at least, as the whole of that 領土 was 完全に cultivated and 改善するd. Upon equal, or nearly equal 利益（をあげる）s, most men will choose to 雇う their 資本／首都s rather in the 改良 and cultivation of land than either in 製造（する）s or in foreign 貿易（する）. The man who 雇うs his 資本／首都 in land has it more under his 見解（をとる） and 命令（する）, and his fortune is much いっそう少なく liable to 事故s than that of the 仲買人, who is 強いるd frequently to commit it, not only to the 勝利，勝つd and the waves, but to the more uncertain elements of human folly and 不正, by giving 広大な／多数の／重要な credits in distant countries to men with whose character and 状況／情勢 he can seldom be 完全に 熟知させるd. The 資本／首都 of the landlord, on the contrary, which is 直す／買収する，八百長をするd in the 改良 of his land, seems to be 同様に 安全な・保証するd as the nature of human 事件／事情／状勢s can 収容する／認める of. The beauty of the country besides, the 楽しみs of a country life, the tranquillity of mind which it 約束s, and wherever the 不正 of human 法律s does not 乱す it, the independency which it really affords, have charms that more or いっそう少なく attract everybody; and as to cultivate the ground was the 初めの 目的地 of man, so in every 行う／開催する／段階 of his 存在 he seems to 保持する a predilection for this 原始の 雇用.

Without the 援助 of some artificers, indeed, the cultivation of land cannot be carried on but with 広大な／多数の／重要な inconveniency and continual interruption. Smiths, carpenters, wheelwrights, and ploughwrights, masons, and bricklayers, tanners, shoemakers, and tailors are people whose service the 農業者 has たびたび（訪れる） occasion for. Such artificers, too, stand occasionally in need of the 援助 of one another; and as their 住居 is not, like that of the 農業者, やむを得ず tied 負かす／撃墜する to a 正確な 位置／汚点／見つけ出す, they 自然に settle in the neighbourhood of one another, and thus form a small town or village. The butcher, the brewer, and the パン職人 soon join them, together with many other artificers and retailers, necessary or useful for 供給（する）ing their 時折の wants, and who 与える／捧げる still その上の to augment the town. The inhabitants of the town and those of the country are 相互に the servants of one another. The town is a continual fair or market, to which the inhabitants of the country 訴える手段／行楽地 ーするために 交流 their rude for 製造（する）d produce. It is this 商業 which 供給（する）s the inhabitants of the town both with the 構成要素s of their work, and the means of their subsistence. The 量 of the finished work which they sell to the inhabitants of the country やむを得ず 規制するs the 量 of the 構成要素s and 準備／条項s which they buy. Neither their 雇用 nor subsistence, therefore, can augment but in 割合 to the augmentation of the 需要・要求する from the country for finished work; and this 需要・要求する can augment only in 割合 to the 拡張 of 改良 and cultivation. Had human 会・原則s, therefore, never 乱すd the natural course of things, the 進歩／革新的な wealth and 増加する of the towns would, in every political society, be consequential, and in 割合 to the 改良 and cultivation of the 領土 or country.

In our North American 植民地s, where uncultivated land is still to be had upon 平易な 条件, no 製造（する）s for distant sale have ever yet been 設立するd in any of their towns. When an artificer has acquired a little more 在庫／株 than is necessary for carrying on his own 商売／仕事 in 供給（する）ing the 隣人ing country, he does not, in North America, 試みる／企てる to 設立する with it a 製造（する） for more distant sale, but 雇うs it in the 購入（する） and 改良 of uncultivated land. From artificer he becomes planter, and neither the large 給料 nor the 平易な subsistence which that country affords to artificers can 賄賂 him rather to work for other people than for himself. He feels that an artificer is the servant of his 顧客s, from whom he derives his subsistence; but that a planter who cultivates his own land, and derives his necessary subsistence from the 労働 of his own family, is really a master, and 独立した・無所属 of all the world.

In countries, on the contrary, where there is either no uncultivated land, or 非，不，無 that can be had upon 平易な 条件, every artificer who has acquired more 在庫／株 than he can 雇う in the 時折の 職業s of the neighbourhood endeavours to 準備する work for more distant sale. The smith 築くs some sort of アイロンをかける, the weaver some sort of linen or woollen manufactory. Those different 製造（する）s come, in 過程 of time, to be 徐々に subdivided, and その為に 改善するd and 精製するd in a 広大な／多数の／重要な variety of ways, which may easily be conceived, and which it is therefore unnecessary to explain any その上の.

In 捜し出すing for 雇用 to a 資本／首都, 製造（する）s are, upon equal or nearly equal 利益（をあげる）s, 自然に preferred to foreign 商業, for the same 推論する／理由 that 農業 is 自然に preferred to 製造（する）s. As the 資本／首都 of the landlord or 農業者 is more 安全な・保証する than that of the 製造業者, so the 資本／首都 of the 製造業者, 存在 at all times more within his 見解（をとる） and 命令（する）, is more 安全な・保証する than that of the foreign merchant. In every period, indeed, of every society, the 黒字／過剰 part both of the rude and 製造（する）d produce, or that for which there is no 需要・要求する at home, must be sent abroad ーするために be 交流d for something for which there is some 需要・要求する at home. But whether the 資本／首都, which carries this 黒字／過剰 produce abroad, be a foreign or a 国内の one is of very little importance. If the society has not acquired 十分な 資本／首都 both to cultivate all its lands, and to 製造（する） in the completest manner the whole of its rude produce, there is even a かなりの advantage that rude produce should be 輸出（する）d by a 外資, in order that the whole 在庫／株 of the society may be 雇うd in more useful 目的s. The wealth of 古代の Egypt, that of 中国 and Indostan, 十分に 論証する that a nation may 達成する a very high degree of opulence though the greater part of its exportation 貿易（する） be carried on by foreigners. The 進歩 of our North American and West Indian 植民地s would have been much いっそう少なく 早い had no 資本／首都 but what belonged to themselves been 雇うd in 輸出（する）ing their 黒字／過剰 produce.

によれば the natural course of things, therefore, the greater part of the 資本／首都 of every growing society is, first, directed to 農業, afterwards to 製造（する）s, and last of all to foreign 商業. This order of things is so very natural that in every society that had any 領土 it has always, I believe, been in some degree 観察するd. Some of their lands must have been cultivated before any かなりの towns could be 設立するd, and some sort of coarse 産業 of the 製造業の 肉親，親類d must have been carried on in those towns, before they could 井戸／弁護士席 think of 雇うing themselves in foreign 商業.

But though this natural order of things must have taken place in some degree in every such society, it has, in all the modern 明言する／公表するs of Europe, been, in many 尊敬（する）・点s, 完全に inverted. The foreign 商業 of some of their cities has introduced all their finer 製造（する）s, or such as were fit for distant sale; and 製造（する）s and foreign 商業 together have given birth to the 主要な／長／主犯 改良s of 農業. The manners and customs which the nature of their 初めの 政府 introduced, and which remained after that 政府 was 大いに altered, やむを得ず 軍隊d them into this unnatural and retrograde order.

一時期／支部 II
Of the Discouragement of 農業 in the 古代の 明言する／公表する
of Europe after the 落ちる of the Roman Empire

This 初めの engrossing of uncultivated lands, though a 広大な／多数の／重要な, might have been but a transitory evil. They might soon have been divided again, and broke into small 小包s either by succession or by alienation. The 法律 of primogeniture 妨げるd them from 存在 divided by succession: the introduction of entails 妨げるd their 存在 broke into small 小包s by alienation.

When land, like movables, is considered as the means only of subsistence and enjoyment, the natural 法律 of succession divides it, like them, の中で all the children of the family; of an of whom the subsistence and enjoyment may be supposed 平等に dear to the father. This natural 法律 of succession accordingly took place の中で the Romans, who made no more distinction between 年上の and younger, between male and 女性（の）, in the 相続物件 of lands than we do in the 配当 of movables. But when land was considered as the means, not of subsistence 単に, but of 力／強力にする and 保護, it was thought better that it should descend 分割されない to one. In those disorderly times every 広大な／多数の／重要な landlord was a sort of petty prince. His tenants were his 支配するs. He was their 裁判官, and in some 尊敬（する）・点s their 立法議員 in peace, and their leader in war. He made war によれば his own discretion, frequently against his 隣人s, and いつかs against his 君主. The 安全 of a landed 広い地所, therefore, the 保護 which its owner could afford to those who dwelt on it, depended upon its greatness. To divide it was to 廃虚 it, and to expose every part of it to be 抑圧するd and swallowed up by the 急襲s of its 隣人s. The 法律 of primogeniture, therefore, （機の）カム to take place, not すぐに, indeed, but in 過程 of time, in the succession of landed 広い地所s, for the same 推論する／理由 that it has 一般に taken place in that of 君主国s, though not always at their first 会・原則. That the 力／強力にする, and その結果 the 安全 of the 君主国, may not be 弱めるd by 分割, it must descend entire to one of the children. To which of them so important a preference shall be given must be 決定するd by some general 支配する, 設立するd not upon the doubtful distinctions of personal 長所, but upon some plain and evident difference which can 収容する／認める of no 論争. の中で the children of the same family, there can be no indisputable difference but that of sex, and that of age. The male sex is universally preferred to the fe male; and when all other things are equal, the 年上の everywhere takes place of the younger. Hence the origin of the 権利 of primogeniture, and of what is called lineal succession.

法律s frequently continue in 軍隊 long after the circumstances which first gave occasion to them, and which could alone （判決などを）下す them reasonable, are no more. In the 現在の 明言する／公表する of Europe, the proprietor of a 選び出す／独身 acre of land is as perfectly 安全な・保証する of his 所有／入手 as the proprietor of a hundred thousand. The 権利 of primogeniture, however, still continues to be 尊敬（する）・点d, and as of all 会・原則s it is the fittest to support the pride of family distinctions, it is still likely to 耐える for many centuries. In every other 尊敬（する）・点, nothing can be more contrary to the real 利益／興味 of a 非常に／多数の family than a 権利 which, ーするために 濃厚にする one, beggars all the 残り／休憩（する） of the children.

Entails are the natural consequences of the 法律 of primogeniture. They were introduced to 保存する a 確かな lineal succession, of which the 法律 of primogeniture first gave the idea, and to 妨げる any part of the 初めの 広い地所 from 存在 carried out of the 提案するd line either by gift, or 工夫する, or alienation; either by the folly, or by the misfortune of any of its 連続する owners. They were altogether unknown to the Romans. Neither their substitutions nor fideicommisses 耐える any resemblance to entails, though some French lawyers have thought proper to dress the modern 会・原則 in the language and garb of those 古代の ones.

When 広大な／多数の／重要な landed 広い地所s were a sort of principalities, entails might not be 不当な. Like what are called the 根底となる 法律s of some 君主国s, they might frequently 妨げる the 安全 of thousands from 存在 危うくするd by the caprice or extravagance of one man. But in the 現在の 明言する／公表する of Europe, when small 同様に as 広大な／多数の／重要な 広い地所s derive their 安全 from the 法律s of their country, nothing can be more 完全に absurd. They are 設立するd upon the most absurd of all suppositions, the supposition that every 連続する 世代 of men have not an equal 権利 to the earth, and to all that it 所有するs; but that the 所有物／資産／財産 of the 現在の 世代 should be 抑制するd and 規制するd によれば the fancy of those who died perhaps five hundred years ago. Entails, however, are still 尊敬（する）・点d through the greater part of Europe, in those countries 特に in which noble birth is a necessary 資格 for the enjoyment either of civil or 軍の honours. Entails are thought necessary for 持続するing this 排除的 特権 of the nobility to the 広大な／多数の／重要な offices and honours of their country; and that order having usurped one 不正な advantage over the 残り／休憩（する） of their fellow 国民s, lest their poverty should （判決などを）下す it ridiculous, it is thought reasonable that they should have another. The ありふれた 法律 of England, indeed, is said to abhor perpetuities, and they are accordingly more 制限するd there than in any other European 君主国; though even England is not altogether without them. In Scotland more than one-fifth, perhaps more than one-third, part of the whole lands of the country are at 現在の supposed to be under strict entail.

広大な／多数の／重要な tracts of uncultivated land were, in this manner, not only engrossed by particular families, but the 可能性 of their 存在 divided again was as much as possible 妨げるd for ever. It seldom happens, however, that a 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietor is a 広大な／多数の／重要な improver. In the disorderly times which gave birth to those barbarous 会・原則s, the 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietor was 十分に 雇うd in defending his own 領土s, or in 延長するing his 裁判権 and 当局 over those of his 隣人s. He had no leisure to …に出席する to the cultivation and 改良 of land. When the 設立 of 法律 and order afforded him this leisure, he often 手配中の，お尋ね者 the inclination, and almost always the requisite abilities. If the expense of his house and person either equalled or 越えるd his 歳入, as it did very frequently, he had no 在庫／株 to 雇う in this manner. If he was an 経済学者, he 一般に 設立する it more profitable to 雇う his 年次の 貯金 in new 購入（する）s than in the 改良 of his old 広い地所. To 改善する land with 利益（をあげる）, like all other 商業の 事業／計画（する）s, 要求するs an exact attention to small 貯金 and small 伸び（る）s, of which a man born to a 広大な／多数の／重要な fortune, even though 自然に frugal, is very seldom 有能な. The 状況／情勢 of such a person 自然に 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせるs him to …に出席する rather to ornament which pleases his fancy than to 利益（をあげる） for which he has so little occasion. The elegance of his dress, of his equipage, of his house, and 世帯 furniture, are 反対するs which from his 幼少／幼藍期 he has been accustomed to have some 苦悩 about. The turn of mind which this habit 自然に forms follows him when he comes to think of the 改良 of land. He embellishes perhaps four or five hundred acres in the neighbourhood of his house, at ten times the expense which the land is 価値（がある） after all his 改良s; and finds that if he was to 改善する his whole 広い地所 in the same manner, and he has little taste for any other, he would be a 破産者／倒産した before he had finished the tenth part of it. There still remain in both part s of the 部隊d Kingdom some 広大な／多数の／重要な 広い地所s which have continued without interruption in the 手渡すs of the same family since the times of 封建的 anarchy. Compare the 現在の 条件 of those 広い地所s with the 所有／入手s of the small proprietors in their neighbourhood, and you will 要求する no other argument to 納得させる you how unfavourable such 広範囲にわたる 所有物／資産／財産 is to 改良.

If little 改良 was to be 推定する／予想するd from such 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors, still いっそう少なく was to be hoped for from those who 占領するd the land under them. In the 古代の 明言する／公表する of Europe, the occupiers of land were all tenants at will. They were all or almost all slaves; but their slavery was of a milder 肉親，親類d than that known の中で the 古代の Greeks and Romans, or even in our West Indian 植民地s. They were supposed to belong more 直接／まっすぐに to the land than to their master. They could, therefore, be sold with it, but not 分かれて. They could marry, 供給するd it was with the 同意 of their master; and he could not afterwards 解散させる the marriage by selling the man and wife to different persons. If he maimed or 殺人d any of them, he was liable to some 刑罰，罰則, though 一般に but to a small one. They were not, however, 有能な of acquiring 所有物／資産／財産. Whatever they acquired was acquired to their master, and he could take it from them at 楽しみ. Whatever cultivation and 改良 could be carried on by means of such slaves was 適切に carried on by their master. It was at his expense. The seed, the cattle, and the 器具s of husbandry were all his. It was for his 利益. Such slaves could acquire nothing but their daily 維持／整備. It was 適切に the proprietor himself, therefore, that, in this 事例／患者, 占領するd his own lands, and cultivated them by his own bondmen. This 種類 of slavery still subsists in Russia, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, and other parts of Germany. It is only in the western and southwestern 州s of Europe that it has 徐々に been 廃止するd altogether.

But if 広大な／多数の／重要な 改良s are seldom to be 推定する／予想するd from 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors, they are least of all to be 推定する／予想するd when they 雇う slaves for their workmen. The experience of all ages and nations, I believe, 論証するs that the work done by slaves, though it appears to cost only their 維持／整備, is in the end the dearest of any. A person who can acquire no 所有物／資産／財産, can have no other 利益／興味 but to eat as much, and to 労働 as little as possible. Whatever work he does beyond what is 十分な to 購入（する） his own 維持／整備 can be squeezed out of him by 暴力／激しさ only, and not by any 利益／興味 of his own. In 古代の Italy, how much the cultivation of corn degenerated, how 無益な it became to the master when it fell under the 管理／経営 of slaves, is 発言／述べるd by both Pliny and Columella. In the time of Aristotle it had not been much better in 古代の Greece. Speaking of the ideal 共和国 述べるd in the 法律s of Plato, to 持続する five thousand idle men (the number of 軍人s supposed necessary for its defence) together with their women and servants, would 要求する, he says, a 領土 of boundless extent and fertility, like the plains of Babylon.

The pride of man makes him love to domineer, and nothing mortifies him so much as to be 強いるd to condescend to 説得する his inferiors. Wherever the 法律 許すs it, and the nature of the work can afford it, therefore, he will 一般に prefer the service of slaves to that of freemen. The 工場／植物ing of sugar and タバコ can afford the expense of slave-cultivation. The raising of corn, it seems, in the 現在の times, cannot. In the English 植民地s, of which the 主要な／長／主犯 produce is corn, the far greater part of the work is done by freemen. The late 決意／決議 of the Quakers in Pennsylvania to 始める，決める at liberty all their negro slaves may 満足させる us that their number cannot be very 広大な／多数の／重要な. Had they made any かなりの part of their 所有物／資産／財産, such a 決意／決議 could never have been agreed to. In our sugar 植民地s, on the contrary, the whole work is done by slaves, and in our タバコ 植民地s a very 広大な／多数の／重要な part of it. The 利益（をあげる）s of a sugar-農園 in any of our West Indian 植民地s are 一般に much greater than those of any other cultivation that is known either in Europe or America; and the 利益（をあげる）s of a タバコ 農園, though inferior to those of sugar, are superior to those of corn, as has already been 観察するd. Both can afford the expense of slave-cultivation, but sugar can afford it still better than タバコ. The number of negroes accordingly is much greater, in 割合 to that of whites, in our sugar than in our タバコ 植民地s.

To the slave cultivators of 古代の times 徐々に 後継するd a 種類 of 農業者s known at 現在の in フラン by the 指名する of metayers. They are called in Latin, Coloni partiarii. They have been so long in disuse in England that at 現在の I know no English 指名する for them. The proprietor furnished them with the seed, cattle, and 器具s of husbandry, the whole 在庫／株, in short, necessary for cultivating the farm. The produce was divided 平等に between the proprietor and the 農業者, after setting aside what was 裁判官d necessary for keeping up the 在庫／株, which was 回復するd to the proprietor when the 農業者 either quitted, or was turned out of the farm.

Land 占領するd by such tenants is 適切に cultivated at the expense of the proprietor as much as that 占領するd by slaves. There is, however, one very 必須の difference between them. Such tenants, 存在 freemen, are 有能な of acquiring 所有物／資産／財産, and having a 確かな 割合 of the produce of the land, they have a plain 利益／興味 that the whole produce should be as 広大な／多数の／重要な as possible, in order that their own 割合 may be so. A slave, on the contrary, who can acquire nothing but his 維持／整備, 協議するs his own 緩和する by making the land produce as little as possible over and above that 維持／整備. It is probable that it was partly upon account of this advantage, and partly upon account of the encroachments which the 君主, always jealous of the 広大な／多数の／重要な lords, 徐々に encouraged their villains to make upon their 当局, and which seem at last to have been such as （判決などを）下すd this 種類 of servitude altogether inconvenient, that 任期 in villanage 徐々に wore out through the greater part of Europe. The time and manner, however, in which so important a 革命 was brought about is one of the most obscure points in modern history. The Church of Rome （人命などを）奪う，主張するs 広大な／多数の／重要な 長所 in it; and it is 確かな that so 早期に as the twelfth century, Alexander III published a bull for the general emancipation of slaves. It seems, however, to have been rather a pious exhortation than a 法律 to which exact obedience was 要求するd from the faithful. Slavery continued to take place almost universally for several centuries afterwards, till it was 徐々に 廃止するd by the 共同の 操作／手術 of the two 利益／興味s above について言及するd, that of the proprietor on the one 手渡す, and that of the 君主 on the other. A villain enfranchised, and at the same time 許すd to continue in 所有／入手 of the land, having no 在庫／株 of his own, could cultivate it only by means of what the landlord 前進するd to him, and must, therefore, have been what the French called a metayer.

It could never, however, be the 利益／興味 even of this last 種類 of cultivators to lay out, in the その上の 改良 of the land, any part of the little 在庫／株 which they might save from their own 株 of the produce, because the lord, who laid out nothing, was to get one half of whatever it produced. The tithe, which is but a tenth of the produce, is 設立する to be a very 広大な／多数の／重要な hindrance to 改良. A 税金, therefore, which 量d to one half must have been an effectual 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業 to it. It might be the 利益／興味 of a metayer to make the land produce as much as could be brought out of it by means of the 在庫／株 furnished by the proprietor; but it could never be his 利益／興味 to mix any part of his own with it. In フラン, where five parts out of six of the whole kingdom are said to be still 占領するd by this 種類 of cultivators, the proprietors complain that their metayers take every 適切な時期 of 雇うing the master's cattle rather in carriage than in cultivation; because in the one 事例／患者 they get the whole 利益（をあげる）s to themselves, in the other they 株 them with their landlord. This 種類 of tenants still subsists in some parts of Scotland. They are called steel-屈服する tenants. Those 古代の English tenants, who are said by 長，指導者 Baron Gilbert and Doctor Blackstone to have been rather （強制）執行官s of the landlord than 農業者s 適切に so called, were probably of the same 肉親，親類d.

To this 種類 of tenancy 後継するd, though by very slow degrees, 農業者s 適切に so called, who cultivated the land with their own 在庫／株, 支払う／賃金ing a rent 確かな to the landlord. When such 農業者s have a 賃貸し（する） for a 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of years, they may いつかs find it for their 利益／興味 to lay out part of their 資本／首都 in the その上の 改良 of the farm; because they may いつかs 推定する／予想する to 回復する it, with a large 利益（をあげる）, before the 満期 of the 賃貸し（する）. The 所有／入手 even of such 農業者s, however, was long 極端に 不安定な, and still is so in many parts of Europe. They could before the 満期 of their 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 be 合法的に outed of their 賃貸し（する） by a new purchaser; in England, even by the fictitious 活動／戦闘 of a ありふれた 回復. If they were turned out 不法に by the 暴力／激しさ of their master, the 活動／戦闘 by which they 得るd 是正する was 極端に imperfect. It did not always 復帰させる them in the 所有／入手 of the land, but gave them 損害賠償金 which never 量d to the real loss. Even in England, the country perhaps of Europe where the yeomanry has always been most 尊敬（する）・点d, it was not till about the 14th of Henry VII that the 活動／戦闘 of ejectment was invented, by which the tenant 回復するs, not 損害賠償金 only but 所有／入手, and in which his （人命などを）奪う，主張する is not やむを得ず 結論するd by the uncertain 決定／判定勝ち（する） of a 選び出す／独身 assize. This 活動／戦闘 has been 設立する so effectual a 治療（薬） that, in the modern practice, when the landlord has occasion to 告訴する for the 所有／入手 of the land, he seldom makes use of the 活動／戦闘s which 適切に belong to him as landlord, the 令状 of 権利 or the 令状 of 入ること／参加（者）, but 告訴するs in the 指名する of his tenant by the 令状 of Ejectment. In England, therefore, the 安全 of the tenant is equal to that of the proprietor. In England, besides, a 賃貸し（する） for life of forty shillings a year value is a freehold, and する権利を与えるs the lessee to 投票（する） for a Member of 議会; and as a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the yeomanry have freeholds of this 肉親，親類d, the whole order becomes respectable to their landlords on account of the politica l consideration which this gives them. There is, I believe, nowhere in Europe, except in England, any instance of the tenant building upon the land of which he had no 賃貸し（する）, and 信用ing that the honour of his landlord would take no advantage of so important an 改良. Those 法律s and customs so favourable to the yeomanry have perhaps 与える／捧げるd more to the 現在の grandeur of England than all their 誇るd 規則s of 商業 taken together.

The 法律 which 安全な・保証するs the longest 賃貸し（する）s against 後継者s of every 肉親，親類d is, so far as I know, peculiar to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. It was introduced into Scotland so 早期に as 1449, a 法律 of James II. Its 有益な 影響（力）, however, has been much 妨害するd by entails; the 相続人s of entail 存在 一般に 抑制するd from letting 賃貸し（する）s for any long 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of years, frequently for more than one year. A late 行為／法令／行動する of 議会 has, in this 尊敬（する）・点, somewhat slackened their fetters, though they are still by much too 海峡. In Scotland, besides, as no leasehold gives a 投票（する） for a Member of 議会, the yeomanry are upon this account いっそう少なく respectable to their landlords than in England.

In other parts of Europe, after it was 設立する convenient to 安全な・保証する tenants both against 相続人s and purchasers, the 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of their 安全 was still 限られた／立憲的な to a very short period; in フラン, for example, to nine years from the 開始／学位授与式 of the 賃貸し（する）. It has in that country, indeed, been lately 延長するd to twenty-seven, a period still too short to encourage the tenant to make the most important 改良s. The proprietors of land were anciently the 立法議員s of every part of Europe. The 法律s relating to land, therefore, were all calculated for what they supposed the 利益／興味 of the proprietor. It was for his 利益／興味, they had imagined, that no 賃貸し（する） 認めるd by any of his 前任者s should 妨げる him from enjoying, during a long 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of years, the 十分な value of his land. Avarice and 不正 are always short-sighted, and they did not 予知する how much this 規則 must 妨害する 改良, and その為に 傷つける in the long-run the real 利益／興味 of the landlord.

The 農業者s too, besides 支払う／賃金ing the rent, were anciently, it was supposed, bound to 成し遂げる a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of services to the landlord, which were seldom either 明示するd in the 賃貸し（する）, or 規制するd by any 正確な 支配する, but by the use and wont of the manor or barony. These services, therefore, 存在 almost 完全に 独断的な, 支配するd the tenant to many vexations. In Scotland the 廃止 of all services not 正確に 規定するd in the 賃貸し（する） has in the course of a few years very much altered for the better the 条件 of the yeomanry of that country.

The public services to which the yeomanry were bound were not いっそう少なく 独断的な than the 私的な ones. To make and 持続する the high roads, a servitude which still subsists, I believe, everywhere, though with different degrees of 圧迫 in different countries, was not the only one. When the king's 軍隊／機動隊s, when his 世帯 or his officers of any 肉親，親類d passed through any part of the country, the yeomanry were bound to 供給する them with horses, carriages, and 準備／条項s, at a price 規制するd by the purveyor. 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain is, I believe, the only 君主国 in Europe where the 圧迫 of purveyance has been 完全に 廃止するd. It still subsists in フラン and Germany.

The public 税金s to which they were 支配する were as 不規律な and oppressive as the services. The 古代の lords, though 極端に unwilling to 認める themselves any pecuniary 援助（する） to their 君主, easily 許すd him to tallage, as they called it their tenants, and had not knowledge enough to 予知する how much this must in the end 影響する／感情 their own 歳入. The taille, as it still subsists in フラン, may serve as an example of those 古代の tallages. It is a 税金 upon the supposed 利益（をあげる）s of the 農業者, which they 見積（る） by the 在庫／株 that he has upon the farm. It is his 利益／興味, therefore, to appear to have as little as possible, and その結果 to 雇う as little as possible in its cultivation, and 非，不，無 in its 改良. Should any 在庫／株 happen to 蓄積する in the 手渡すs of a French 農業者, the taille is almost equal to a 禁止 of its ever 存在 雇うd upon the land. This 税金, besides, is supposed to dishonour whoever is 支配する to it, and to degrade him below, not only the 階級 of a gentleman, but that of a burgher, and whoever rents the lands of another becomes 支配する to it. No gentleman, nor even any burgher who has 在庫／株, will 服従させる／提出する to this degradation. This 税金, therefore, not only 妨げるs the 在庫／株 which 蓄積するs upon the land from 存在 雇うd in its 改良, but 運動s away an other 在庫／株 from it. The 古代の tenths and fifteenths, so usual in England in former times, seem, so far as they 影響する／感情d the land, to have been 税金s of the same nature with the taille.

Under all these discouragements, little 改良 could be 推定する／予想するd from the occupiers of land. That order of people, with all the liberty and 安全 which 法律 can give, must always 改善する under 広大な／多数の／重要な disadvantages. The 農業者, compared with the proprietor, is as a merchant who 貿易（する）s with borrowed money compared with one who 貿易（する）s with his own. The 在庫／株 of both may 改善する, but that of the one, with only equal good 行為／行う, must always 改善する more slowly than that of the other, on account of the large 株 of the 利益（をあげる）s which is 消費するd by the 利益／興味 of the 貸付金. The lands cultivated by the 農業者 must, in the same manner, with only equal good 行為／行う, be 改善するd more slowly than those cultivated by the proprietor, on account of the large 株 of the produce which is 消費するd in the rent, and which, had the 農業者 been proprietor, he might have 雇うd in the その上の 改良 of the land. The 駅／配置する of a 農業者 besides is, from the nature of things, inferior to that of a proprietor. Through the greater part of Europe the yeomanry are regarded as an inferior 階級 of people, even to the better sort of tradesmen and mechanics, and in all parts of Europe to the 広大な／多数の／重要な merchants and master 製造業者s. It can seldom happen, therefore, that a man of any かなりの 在庫／株 should やめる the superior ーするために place himself in an inferior 駅／配置する. Even in the 現在の 明言する／公表する of Europe, therefore, little 在庫／株 is likely to go from any other profession to the 改良 of land in the way of farming. More does perhaps in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain than in any other country, though even there the 広大な／多数の／重要な 在庫／株s which are, in some places, 雇うd in farming have 一般に been acquired by farming, the 貿易（する）, perhaps, in which of all others 在庫／株 is 一般的に acquired most slowly. After small proprietors, however, rich and 広大な／多数の／重要な 農業者s are, in every country, the 主要な／長／主犯 improvers. There are more such perhaps in England than in any other European 君主国. In the 共和国の／共和党の 政府s of Holland and of Berne in Swit zerland, the 農業者s are said to be not inferior to those of England.

The 古代の 政策 of Europe was, over and above all this, unfavourable to the 改良 and cultivation of land, whether carried on by the proprietor or by the 農業者; first, by the general 禁止 of the exportation of corn without a special licence, which seems to have been a very 全世界の／万国共通の 規則; and secondly, by the 抑制s which were laid upon the inland 商業, not only of corn, but of almost every other part of the produce of the farm by the absurd 法律s against engrossers, regrators, and forestallers, and by the 特権s of fairs and markets. It has already been 観察するd in what manner the 禁止 of the exportation of corn, together with some 激励 given to the 輸入 of foreign corn, 妨害するd the cultivation of 古代の Italy, 自然に the most fertile country in Europe, and at that time the seat of the greatest empire in the world. To what degree such 抑制s upon the inland 商業 of this 商品／必需品, joined to the general 禁止 of exportation, must have discouraged the cultivation of countries いっそう少なく fertile and いっそう少なく favourably circumstanced, it is not perhaps very 平易な to imagine.

一時期／支部 III
Of the Rise and 進歩 of Cities and Towns
after the 落ちる of the Roman Empire

They seem, indeed, to have been a very poor, mean 始める，決める of people, who used to travel about with their goods from place to place, and from fair to fair, like the hawkers and pedlars of the 現在の times. In all the different countries of Europe then, in the same manner as in several of the Tartar 政府s of Asia at 現在の, 税金s used to be 徴収するd upon the persons and goods of travellers when they passed through 確かな manors, when they went over 確かな 橋（渡しをする）s, when they carried about their goods from place to place in a fair, when they 築くd in it a booth or 立ち往生させる to sell them in. These different 税金s were known in England by the 指名するs of passage, pontage, lastage, and stallage. いつかs the king, いつかs a 広大な／多数の／重要な lord, who had, it seems, upon some occasions, 当局 to do this, would 認める to particular 仲買人s, to such 特に as lived in their own demesnes, a general 控除 from such 税金s. Such 仲買人s, though in other 尊敬（する）・点s of servile, or very nearly of servile 条件, were upon this account called 解放する／自由な-仲買人s. They in return usually paid to their protector a sort of 年次の 投票-税金. In those days 保護 was seldom 認めるd without a 価値のある consideration, and this 税金 might, perhaps, be considered as 補償（金） for what their patrons might lose by their 控除 from other 税金s. At first, both those 投票-税金s and those 控除s seem to have been altogether personal, and to have 影響する／感情d only particular individuals during either their lives or the 楽しみ of their protectors. In the very imperfect accounts which have been published from Domesday 調書をとる／予約する of several of the towns of England, について言及する is frequently made いつかs of the 税金 which particular burghers paid, each of them, either to the king or to some other 広大な／多数の／重要な lord for this sort of 保護; and いつかs of the general 量 only of all those 税金s.

But how servile soever may have been 初めは the 条件 of the inhabitants of the towns, it appears evidently that they arrived at liberty and independency much earlier than the occupiers of land in the country. That part of the king's 歳入 which arose from such 投票-税金s in any particular town used 一般的に to be let in farm during a 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of years for a rent 確かな , いつかs to the 郡保安官 of the 郡, and いつかs to other persons. The burghers themselves frequently got credit enough to be 認める to farm the 歳入s of this sort which arose out of their own town, they becoming 共同で and severally 責任のある for the whole rent. To let a farm in this manner was やめる agreeable to the usual economy of, I believe, the 君主s of all the different countries of Europe, who used frequently to let whole manors to all the tenants of those manors, they becoming 共同で and severally 責任のある for the whole rent; but in return 存在 許すd to collect it in their own way, and to 支払う／賃金 it into the king's exchequer by the 手渡すs of their own （強制）執行官, and 存在 thus altogether 解放する／自由なd from the insolence of the king's officers- a circumstance in those days regarded as of the greatest importance.

At first the farm of the town was probably let to the burghers, in the same manner as it had been to other 農業者s, for a 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of years only. In 過程 of time, however, it seems to have become the general practice to 認める it to them in 料金, that is for ever, reserving a rent 確かな never afterwards to be augmented. The 支払い（額） having thus become perpetual, the 控除s, in return for which it was made, 自然に became perpetual too. Those 控除s, therefore, 中止するd to be personal, and could not afterwards be considered as belonging to individuals as individuals, but as burghers of a particular burgh, which, upon this account, was called a 解放する／自由な burgh, for the same 推論する／理由 that they had been called 解放する／自由な burghers or 解放する／自由な 仲買人s.

Along with this 認める, the important 特権s above について言及するd, that they might give away their own daughters in marriage, that their children should 後継する to them, and that they might 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of their own 影響s by will, were 一般に bestowed upon the burghers of the town to whom it was given. Whether such 特権s had before been usually 認めるd along with the freedom of 貿易（する） to particular burghers, as individuals, I know not. I reckon it not improbable that they were, though I cannot produce any direct 証拠 of it. But however this may have been, the 主要な／長／主犯 せいにするs of villanage and slavery 存在 thus taken away from them, they now, at least, became really 解放する／自由な in our 現在の sense of the word Freedom.

Nor was this all. They were 一般に at the same time 築くd into a commonalty or 会社／団体, with the 特権 of having 治安判事s and a town 会議 of their own, of making bye-法律s for their own 政府, of building 塀で囲むs for their own defence, and of 減ずるing all their inhabitants under a sort of 軍の discipline by 強いるing them to watch and 区, that is, as anciently understood, to guard and defend those 塀で囲むs against all attacks and surprises by night 同様に as by day. In England they were 一般に 免除されたd from 控訴 to the hundred and 郡 法廷，裁判所s; and all such 嘆願s as should arise の中で them, the 嘆願s of the 栄冠を与える excepted, were left to the 決定／判定勝ち（する） of their own 治安判事s. In other countries much greater and more 広範囲にわたる 裁判権s were frequently 認めるd to them.

It might, probably, be necessary to 認める to such towns as were 認める to farm their own 歳入s some sort of compulsive 裁判権 to 強いる their own 国民s to make 支払い（額）. In those disorderly times it might have been 極端に inconvenient to have left them to 捜し出す this sort of 司法（官） from any other 法廷. But it must seem 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の that the 君主s of all the different countries of Europe should have 交流d in this manner for a rent 確かな , never more to be augmented, that 支店 of the 歳入 which was, perhaps, of all others the most likely to be 改善するd by the natural course of things, without either expense or attention of their own: and that they should, besides, have in this manner 任意に 築くd a sort of 独立した・無所属 共和国s in the heart of their own dominions.

ーするために understand this, it must be remembered that in those days the 君主 of perhaps no country in Europe was able to 保護する, through the whole extent of his dominions, the 女性 part of his 支配するs from the 圧迫 of the 広大な／多数の／重要な lords. Those whom the 法律 could not 保護する, and who were not strong enough to defend themselves, were 強いるd either to have 頼みの綱 to the 保護 of some 広大な／多数の／重要な lord, and ーするために 得る it to become either his slaves or vassals; or to enter into a league of 相互の defence for the ありふれた 保護 of one another. The inhabitants of cities and burghs, considered as 選び出す／独身 individuals, had no 力／強力にする to defend themselves; but by entering into a league of 相互の defence with their 隣人s, they were 有能な of making no contemptible 抵抗. The lords despised the burghers, whom they considered not only as of a different order, but as a 小包 of emancipated slaves, almost of a different 種類 from themselves. The wealth of the burghers never failed to 刺激する their envy and indignation, and they plundered them upon every occasion without mercy or 悔恨. The burghers 自然に hated and 恐れるd the lords. The king hated and 恐れるd them too; but though perhaps he might despise, he had no 推論する／理由 either to hate or 恐れる the burghers. 相互の 利益／興味, therefore, 性質の／したい気がして them to support the king, and the king to support them against the lords. They were the enemies of his enemies, and it was his 利益／興味 to （判決などを）下す them as 安全な・保証する and 独立した・無所属 of those enemies as he could. By 認めるing them 治安判事s of their own, the 特権 of making bye-法律s for their own 政府, that of building 塀で囲むs for their own defence, and that of 減ずるing all their inhabitants under a sort of 軍の discipline, he gave them all the means of 安全 and independency of the barons which it was in his 力／強力にする to bestow. Without the 設立 of some 正規の／正選手 政府 of this 肉親，親類d, without some 当局 to 強要する their inhabitants to 行為／法令／行動する によれば some 確かな 計画（する） or syst em, no voluntary league of 相互の defence could either have afforded them any 永久の 安全, or have enabled them to give the king any かなりの support. By 認めるing them the farm of their town in 料金, he took away from those whom he wished to have for his friends, and, if one may say so, for his 同盟（する）s, all ground of jealousy and 疑惑 that he was ever afterwards to 抑圧する them, either by raising the farm rent of their town or by 認めるing it to some other 農業者.

The princes who lived upon the worst 条件 with their barons seem accordingly to have been the most 自由主義の in 認めるs of this 肉親，親類d to their burghs. King John of England, for example, appears to have been a most munificent benefactor to his towns. Philip the First of フラン lost all 当局 over his barons. に向かって the end of his 統治する, his son 吊りくさび, known afterwards by the 指名する of 吊りくさび the Fat, 協議するd, によれば Father Daniel, with the bishops of the 王室の demesnes 関心ing the most proper means of 抑制するing the 暴力／激しさ of the 広大な／多数の／重要な lords. Their advice consisted of two different 提案s. One was to 築く a new order of 裁判権, by 設立するing 治安判事s and a town 会議 in every かなりの town of his demesnes. The other was to form a new 民兵, by making the inhabitants of those towns, under the 命令（する） of their own 治安判事s, march out upon proper occasions to the 援助 of the king. It is from this period, によれば the French antiquarians, that we are to date the 会・原則 of the 治安判事s and 会議s of cities in フラン. It was during the unprosperous 統治するs of the princes of the house of Suabia that the greater part of the 解放する／自由な towns of Germany received the first 認めるs of their 特権s, and that the famous Hanseatic league first became formidable.

The 民兵 of the cities seems, in those times, not to have been inferior to that of the country, and as they could be more readily 組み立てる／集結するd upon any sudden occasion, they frequently had the advantage in their 論争s with the 隣人ing lords. In countries, such as Italy and Switzerland, in which, on account either of their distance from the 主要な／長／主犯 seat of 政府, of the natural strength of the country itself, or of some other 推論する／理由, the 君主 （機の）カム to lose the whole of his 当局, the cities 一般に became 独立した・無所属 共和国s, and 征服する／打ち勝つd all the nobility in their neighbourhood, 強いるing them to pull 負かす／撃墜する their 城s in the country and to live, like other peaceable inhabitants, in the city. This is the short history of the 共和国 of Berne 同様に as of several other cities in Switzerland. If you except Venice, for of that city the history is somewhat different, it is the history of all the かなりの Italian 共和国s, of which so 広大な／多数の／重要な a number arose and 死なせる／死ぬd between the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the sixteenth century.

In countries such as フラン or England, where the 当局 of the 君主, though frequently very low, never was destroyed altogether, the cities had no 適切な時期 of becoming 完全に 独立した・無所属. They became, however, so かなりの that the 君主 could 課す no 税金 upon them, besides the 明言する／公表するd farm-rent of the town, without their own 同意. They were, therefore, called upon to send 副s to the general 議会 of the 明言する／公表するs of the kingdom, where they might join with the clergy and the barons in 認めるing, upon 緊急の occasions, some 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 援助（する） to the king. 存在 一般に, too, more favourable to his 力／強力にする, their 副s seem, いつかs, to have been 雇うd by him as a counterbalance in those 議会s to the 当局 of the 広大な／多数の／重要な lords. Hence the origin of the 代表 of burghs in the 明言する／公表するs-general of all the 広大な／多数の／重要な 君主国s in Europe.

Order and good 政府, and along with them the liberty and 安全 of individuals, were, in this manner, 設立するd in cities at a time when the occupiers of land in the country were exposed to every sort of 暴力／激しさ. But men in this defenceless 明言する／公表する 自然に content themselves with their necessary subsistence, because to acquire more might only tempt the 不正 of their 抑圧者s. On the contrary, when they are 安全な・保証する of enjoying the fruits of their 産業, they 自然に 発揮する it to better their 条件, and to acquire not only the necessaries, but the conveniences and elegancies of life. That 産業, therefore, which 目的（とする）s at something more than necessary subsistence, was 設立するd in cities long before it was 一般的に practised by the occupiers of land in the country. If in the 手渡すs of a poor cultivator, 抑圧するd with the servitude of villanage, some little 在庫／株 should 蓄積する, he would 自然に 隠す it with 広大な／多数の／重要な care from his master, to whom it would さもなければ have belonged, and take the first 適切な時期 of running away to a town. The 法律 was at that time so indulgent to the inhabitants of towns, and so desirous of 減らすing the 当局 of the lords over those of the country, that if he could 隠す himself there from the 追跡 of his lord for a year, he was 解放する／自由な for ever. Whatever 在庫／株, therefore, 蓄積するd in the 手渡すs of the industrious part of the inhabitants of the country 自然に took 避難 in cities as the only 聖域s in which it could be 安全な・保証する to the person that acquired it.

The inhabitants of a city, it is true, must always 最終的に derive their subsistence, and the whole 構成要素s and means of their 産業, from the country. But those of a city, 据えるd 近づく either the sea coast or the banks of a navigable river, are not やむを得ず 限定するd to derive them from the country in their neighbourhood. They have a much wider 範囲, and may draw them from the most remote corners of the world, either in 交流 for the 製造（する）d produce of their own 産業, or by 成し遂げるing the office of 運送／保菌者s between distant countries and 交流ing the produce of one for that of another. A city might in this manner grow up to 広大な／多数の／重要な wealth and splendour, while not only the country in its neighbourhood, but all those to which it 貿易（する）d, were in poverty and wretchedness. Each of those countries, perhaps, taken singly, could afford it but a small part either of its subsistence or of its 雇用, but all of them taken together could afford it both a 広大な／多数の／重要な subsistence and a 広大な／多数の／重要な 雇用. There were, however, within the 狭くする circle of the 商業 of those times, some countries that were opulent and industrious. Such was the Greek empire as long as it subsisted, and that of the Saracens during the 統治するs of the Abassides. Such too was Egypt till it was 征服する／打ち勝つd by the Turks, some part of the coast of Barbary, and all those 州s of Spain which were under the 政府 of the Moors.

The cities of Italy seem to have been the first in Europe which were raised by 商業 to any かなりの degree of opulence. Italy lay in the centre of what was at that time the 改善するd and civilised part of the world. The Crusades too, though by the 広大な／多数の／重要な waste of 在庫／株 and 破壊 of inhabitants which they occasioned they must やむを得ず have retarded the 進歩 of the greater part of Europe, were 極端に favourable to that of some Italian cities. The 広大な／多数の／重要な armies which marched from all parts to the conquest of the 宗教上の Land gave 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 激励 to the shipping of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, いつかs in 輸送（する）ing them thither, and always in 供給（する）ing them with 準備／条項s. They were the commissaries, if one may say so, of those armies; and the most destructive frenzy that ever befell the European nations was a source of opulence to those 共和国s.

The inhabitants of 貿易（する）ing cities, by 輸入するing the 改善するd 製造（する）s and expensive 高級なs of richer countries, afforded some food to the vanity of the 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors, who 熱望して 購入（する）d them with 広大な／多数の／重要な 量s of the rude produce of their own lands. The 商業 of a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of Europe in those times, accordingly, consisted 主として in the 交流 of their own rude for the, 製造（する）d produce of more civilised nations. Thus the wool of England used to be 交流d for the ワインs of フラン and the 罰金 cloths of Flanders, in the same manner as the corn in Poland is at this day 交流d for the ワインs and brandies of フラン and for the silks and velvets of フラン and Italy.

A taste for the finer and more 改善するd 製造（する）s was in this manner introduced by foreign 商業 into countries where no such 作品 were carried on. But when this taste became so general as to occasion a かなりの 需要・要求する, the merchants, ーするために save the expense of carriage, 自然に endeavoured to 設立する some 製造（する）s of the same 肉親，親類d in their own country. Hence the origin of the first 製造（する）s for distant sale that seem to have been 設立するd in the western 州s of Europe after the 落ちる of the Roman empire. No large country, it must be 観察するd, ever did or could subsist without some sort of 製造（する）s 存在 carried on in it; and when it is said of any such country that it has no 製造（する）s, it must always be understood of the finer and more 改善するd or of such as are fit for distant sale. In every large country both the 着せる／賦与するing and 世帯 furniture of the far greater part of the people are the produce of their own 産業. This is even more universally the 事例／患者 in those poor countries which are 一般的に said to have no 製造（する）s than in those rich ones that are said to abound in them. In the latter, you will 一般に find, both in the 着せる／賦与するs and 世帯 furniture of the lowest 階級 of people, a much greater 割合 of foreign 生産／産物s than in the former.

Those 製造（する）s which are fit for distant sale seem to have been introduced into different countries in two different ways.

いつかs they have been introduced, in the manner above について言及するd, by the violent 操作／手術, if one may say so, of the 在庫／株s of particular merchants and undertakers, who 設立するd them in imitation of some foreign 製造（する）s of the same 肉親，親類d. Such 製造（する）s, therefore, are the offspring of foreign 商業, and such seem to have been the 古代の 製造（する）s of silks, velvets, and brocades, which 繁栄するd in Lucca during the thirteenth century. They were banished from thence by the tyranny of one of Machiavel's heroes, Castruccio Castracani. In 1310, nine hundred families were driven out of Lucca, of whom thirty-one retired to Venice and 申し込む／申し出d to introduce there the silk 製造（する）. Their 申し込む／申し出 was 受託するd; many 特権s were conferred upon them, and they began the 製造（する） with three hundred workmen. Such, too, seem to have been the 製造（する）s of 罰金 cloths that anciently 繁栄するd in Flanders, and which were introduced into England in the beginning of the 統治する of Elizabeth; and such are the 現在の silk 製造（する）s of Lyons and Spitalfields. 製造（する）s introduced in this manner are 一般に 雇うd upon foreign 構成要素s, 存在 imitations of foreign 製造（する）s. When the Venetian 製造（する） was first 設立するd, the 構成要素s were all brought from Sicily and the Levant. The more 古代の 製造（する） of Lucca was likewise carried on with foreign 構成要素s. The cultivation of mulberry trees and the 産む／飼育するing of silk-worms seem not to have been ありふれた in the northern parts of Italy before the sixteenth century. Those arts were not introduced into フラン till the 統治する of Charles IX. The 製造（する）s of Flanders were carried on 主として with Spanish and English wool. Spanish wool was the 構成要素, not of the first woollen 製造（する） of England, but of the first that was fit for distant sale. More than one half the 構成要素s of the Lyons 製造（する） is at this day, foreign silk; when it was first 設立するd, the whole or very nearly the whole was so. No part of the 構成要素s of the S pitalfields 製造（する） is ever likely be the produce of England. The seat of such 製造（する）s, as they are 一般に introduced by the 計画／陰謀 and 事業／計画（する） of a few individuals, is いつかs 設立するd in a 海上の city, and いつかs in an inland town, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as their 利益／興味, judgment, or caprice happen to 決定する.

At other times, 製造（する）s for distant sale group up 自然に, and as it were of their own （許可，名誉などを）与える, by the 漸進的な refinement of those 世帯 and coarser 製造（する）s which must at all times be carried on even in the poorest and rudest countries. Such 製造（する）s are 一般に 雇うd upon the 構成要素s which the country produces, and they seem frequently to have been first 精製するd and 改善するd in such inland countries as were, not indeed at a very 広大な／多数の／重要な, but at a かなりの distance from the sea coast, and いつかs even from all water carriage. An inland country, 自然に fertile and easily cultivated, produces a 広大な／多数の／重要な 黒字／過剰 of 準備／条項s beyond what is necessary for 持続するing the cultivators, and on account of the expense of land carriage, and inconveniency of river 航海, it may frequently be difficult to send this 黒字／過剰 abroad. 豊富, therefore, （判決などを）下すs 準備／条項s cheap, and encourages a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of workmen to settle in the neighbourhood, who find that their 産業 can there procure them more of the necessaries and conveniencies of life than in other places. They work up the 構成要素s of 製造（する） which the land produces, and 交流 their finished work, or what is the same thing the price of it, for more 構成要素s and 準備／条項s. They give a new value to the 黒字／過剰 part of the rude produce by saving the expense of carrying it to the water 味方する or to some distant market; and they furnish the cultivators with something in 交流 for it that is either useful or agreeable to them upon easier 条件 than they could have 得るd it before. The cultivators get a better price for their 黒字／過剰 produce, and can 購入（する） cheaper other conveniences which they have occasion for. They are thus both encouraged and enabled to 増加する this 黒字／過剰 produce by a その上の 改良 and better cultivation of the land; and as

一時期／支部 IV
How the 商業 of the Towns 与える／捧げるd
to the 改良 of the Country

First, by affording a 広大な／多数の／重要な and ready market for the rude produce of the country, they gave 激励 to its cultivation and その上の 改良. This 利益 was not even 限定するd to the countries in which they were 据えるd, but 延長するd more or いっそう少なく to all those with which they had any 取引. To all of them they afforded a market for some part either of their rude or 製造（する）d produce, and その結果 gave some 激励 to the 産業 and 改良 of all. Their own country, however, on account of its neighbourhood, やむを得ず derived the greatest 利益 from this market. Its rude produce 存在 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金d with いっそう少なく carriage, the 仲買人s could 支払う／賃金 the growers a better price for it, and yet afford it as cheap to the 消費者s as that of more distant countries.

Secondly, the wealth acquired by the inhabitants of cities was frequently 雇うd in 購入（する）ing such lands as were to be sold, of which a 広大な／多数の／重要な part would frequently be uncultivated. Merchants are 一般的に ambitious of becoming country gentlemen, and when they do, they are 一般に the best of all improvers. A merchant is accustomed to 雇う his money 主として in profitable 事業／計画（する）s, 反して a mere country gentleman is accustomed to 雇う it 主として in expense. The one often sees his money go from him and return to him again with a 利益（をあげる）; the other, when once he parts with it, very seldom 推定する／予想するs to see any more of it. Those different habits 自然に 影響する／感情 their temper and disposition in every sort of 商売／仕事. A merchant is 一般的に a bold, a country gentleman a timid undertaker. The one is not afraid to lay out at once a large 資本／首都 upon the 改良 of his land when he has a probable prospect of raising the value of it in 割合 to the expense. The other, if he has any 資本／首都, which is not always the 事例／患者, seldom 投機・賭けるs to 雇う it in this manner. If he 改善するs at all, it is 一般的に not with a 資本／首都, but with what he can save out of his 年次の 歳入. Whoever has had the fortune to live in a 商業の town 据えるd in an unimproved country must have frequently 観察するd how much more spirited the 操作／手術s of merchants were in this way than those of mere country gentlemen. The habits, besides, of order, economy, and attention, to which 商業の 商売／仕事 自然に forms a merchant, （判決などを）下す him much fitter to 遂行する／発効させる, with 利益（をあげる） and success, any 事業／計画（する） of 改良.

Thirdly, and lastly, 商業 and 製造（する）s 徐々に introduced order and good 政府, and with them, the liberty and 安全 of individuals, の中で the inhabitants of the country, who had before lived almost in a continual 明言する／公表する of war with their 隣人s and of servile dependency upon their superiors. This, though it has been the least 観察するd, is by far the most important of all their 影響s. Mr. Hume is the only writer who, so far as I know, has hitherto taken notice of it.

In a country which has neither foreign 商業, nor any of the finer 製造（する）s, a 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietor, having nothing for which he can 交流 the greater part of the produce of his lands which is over and above the 維持／整備 of the cultivators, 消費するs the whole in rustic 歓待 at home. If this 黒字／過剰 produce is 十分な to 持続する a hundred or a thousand men, he can make use of it in no other way than by 持続するing a hundred or a thousand men. He is at all times, therefore, surrounded with a multitude of retainers and dependants, who, having no 同等（の） to give in return for their 維持／整備, but 存在 fed 完全に by his bounty, must obey him, for the same 推論する／理由 that 兵士s must obey the prince who 支払う／賃金s them. Before the 拡張 of 商業 and 製造（する） in Europe, the 歓待 of the rich, and the 広大な／多数の／重要な, from the 君主 負かす／撃墜する to the smallest baron, 越えるd everything which in the 現在の times we can easily form a notion of. Westminster Hall was the dining-room of William Rufus, and might frequently, perhaps, not be too large for his company. It was reckoned a piece of magnificence in Thomas Becket that he まき散らすd the 床に打ち倒す of his hall with clean hay or 急ぐs in the season, in order that the knights and squires who could not get seats might not spoil their 罰金 着せる／賦与するs when they sat 負かす／撃墜する on the 床に打ち倒す to eat their dinner. The 広大な／多数の／重要な Earl of Warwick is said to have entertained every day at his different manors thirty thousand people, and though the number here may have been 誇張するd, it must, however, have been very 広大な／多数の／重要な to 収容する／認める of such exaggeration. A 歓待 nearly of the same 肉親，親類d was 演習d not many years ago in many different parts of the highlands of Scotland. It seems to be ありふれた in all nations to whom 商業 and 製造（する）s are little known. "I have seen," says Doctor Pocock, "an Arabian 長，指導者 dine in the streets of a town where he had come to sell his cattle, and 招待する all 乗客s, even ありふれた beggars, to sit 負かす／撃墜する with him and partake of his 祝宴."

The occupiers of land were in every 尊敬（する）・点 as 扶養家族 upon the 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietor as his retainers. Even such of them as were not in a 明言する／公表する of villanage were tenants at will, who paid a rent in no 尊敬（する）・点 同等（の） to the subsistence which the land afforded them. A 栄冠を与える, half a 栄冠を与える, a sheep, a lamb, was some years ago in the highlands of Scotland a ありふれた rent for lands which 持続するd a family. In some places it is so at this day; nor will money at 現在の 購入（する） a greater 量 of 商品／必需品s there than in other places. In a country where the 黒字／過剰 produce of a large 広い地所 must be 消費するd upon the 広い地所 itself, it will frequently be more convenient for the proprietor that part of it be 消費するd at a distance from his own house 供給するd they who 消費する it are as 扶養家族 upon him as either his retainers or his menial servants. He is その為に saved from the 当惑 of either too large a company or too large a family. A tenant at will, who 所有するs land 十分な to 持続する his family for little more than a やめる-rent, is as 扶養家族 upon the proprietor as any servant or retainer whatever and must obey him with as little reserve. Such a proprietor, as he 料金d his servants and retainers at his own house, so he 料金d his tenants at their houses. The subsistence of both is derived from his bounty, and its continuance depends upon his good 楽しみ.

Upon the 当局 which the 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietor やむを得ず had in such a 明言する／公表する of things over their tenants and retainers was 設立するd the 力／強力にする of the 古代の barons. They やむを得ず became the 裁判官s in peace, and the leaders in war, of all who dwelt upon their 広い地所s. They could 持続する order and 遂行する／発効させる the 法律 within their 各々の demesnes, because each of them could there turn the whole 軍隊 of all the inhabitants against the 不正 of any one. No other persons had 十分な 当局 to do this. The king in particular had not. In those 古代の times he was little more than the greatest proprietor in his dominions, to whom, for the sake of ありふれた defence against their ありふれた enemies, the other 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors paid 確かな 尊敬（する）・点s. To have 施行するd 支払い（額） of a small 負債 within the lands of a 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietor, where all the inhabitants were 武装した and accustomed to stand by one another, would have cost the king, had he 試みる／企てるd it by his own 当局, almost the same 成果／努力 as to 消滅させる a civil war. He was, therefore, 強いるd to abandon the 行政 of 司法（官） through the greater part of the country to those who were 有能な of 治めるing it; and for the same 推論する／理由 to leave the 命令（する） of the country 民兵 to those whom that 民兵 would obey.

It is a mistake to imagine that those 領土の 裁判権s took their origin from the 封建的 法律. Not only the highest 裁判権s both civil and 犯罪の, but the 力／強力にする of 徴収するing 軍隊／機動隊s, of coining money, and even that of making bye-法律s for the 政府 of their own people, were all 権利s 所有するd allodially by the 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors of land several centuries before even the 指名する of the 封建的 法律 was known in Europe. The 当局 and 裁判権 of the Saxon lords in England appear to have been as 広大な／多数の／重要な before the Conquest as that of any of the Norman lords after it. But the 封建的 法律 is not supposed to have become the ありふれた 法律 of England till after the Conquest. That the most 広範囲にわたる 当局 and 裁判権s were 所有するd by the 広大な／多数の／重要な lords in フラン allodially long before the 封建的 法律 was introduced into that country is a 事柄 of fact that 収容する／認めるs of no 疑問. That 当局 and those 裁判権s all やむを得ず flowed from the 明言する／公表する of 所有物／資産／財産 and manners just now 述べるd. Without remounting to the remote antiquities of either the French or English 君主国s, we may find in much later times many proofs that such 影響s must always flow from such 原因（となる）s. It is not thirty years ago since Mr. Cameron of Lochiel, a gentleman of Lochabar in Scotland, without any 合法的な 令状 whatever, not 存在 what was then called a lord of regality, nor even a tenant in 長，指導者, but a vassal of the Duke of Argyle, and without 存在 so much as a 司法（官） of peace, used, notwithstanding, to 演習 the highest 犯罪の 裁判権 over his own people. He is said to have done so with 広大な／多数の／重要な 公正，普通株主権, though without any of the 形式順守s of 司法（官）; and it is not improbable that the 明言する／公表する of that part of the country at that time made it necessary for him to assume this 当局 ーするために 持続する the public peace. That gentleman, whose rent never 越えるd five hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs a year, carried, in 1745, eight hundred of his own people into the 反乱 with him.

The introduction of the 封建的 法律, so far from 延長するing, may be regarded as an 試みる／企てる to 穏健な the 当局 of the 広大な／多数の／重要な allodial lords. It 設立するd a 正規の／正選手 subordination, …を伴ってd with a long train of services and 義務s, from the king 負かす／撃墜する to the smallest proprietor. During the 少数，小数派 of the proprietor, the rent, together with the 管理／経営 of his lands, fell into the 手渡すs of his 即座の superior, and, その結果, those of all 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors into the 手渡すs of the king, who was 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金d with the 維持／整備 and education of the pupil, and who, from his 当局 as 後見人, was supposed to have a 権利 of 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせるing of him in marriage, 供給するd it was in a manner not unsuitable to his 階級. But though this 会・原則 やむを得ず tended to 強化する the 当局 of the king, and to 弱める that of the 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors, it could not do either 十分に for 設立するing order and good 政府 の中で the inhabitants of the country, because it could not alter 十分に that 明言する／公表する of 所有物／資産／財産 and manners from which the disorders arose. The 当局 of 政府 still continued to be, as before, too weak in the 長，率いる and too strong in the inferior members, and the 過度の strength of the inferior members was the 原因（となる） of the 証拠不十分 of the 長，率いる. After the 会・原則 of 封建的 subordination, the king was as incapable of 抑制するing the 暴力／激しさ of the 広大な／多数の／重要な lords as before. They still continued to make war によれば their own discretion, almost continually upon one another, and very frequently upon the king; and the open country still continued to be a scene of 暴力／激しさ, rapine, and disorder.

But what all the 暴力／激しさ of the 封建的 会・原則s could never have 影響d, the silent and insensible 操作／手術 of foreign 商業 and 製造（する）s 徐々に brought about. These 徐々に furnished the 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors with something for which they could 交流 the whole 黒字／過剰 produce of their lands, and which they could 消費する themselves without 株ing it either with tenants or retainers. All for ourselves and nothing for other people, seems, in every age of the world, to have been the vile maxim of the masters of mankind. As soon, therefore, as they could find a method of 消費するing the whole value of their rents themselves, they had no disposition to 株 them with any other persons. For a pair of diamond buckles, perhaps, or for something as frivolous and useless, they 交流d the 維持／整備, or what is the same thing, the price of the 維持／整備 of a thousand men for a year, and with it the whole 負わせる and 当局 which it could give them. The buckles, however, were to be all their own, and no other human creature was to have any 株 of them; 反して in the more 古代の method of expense they must have 株d with at least a thousand people. With the 裁判官s that were to 決定する the preference this difference was perfectly 決定的な; and thus, for the gratification of the most childish, the meanest, and the most sordid of all vanities, they 徐々に 物々交換するd their whole 力／強力にする and 当局.

In a country where there is no foreign 商業, nor any of the finer 製造（する）s, a man of ten thousand a year cannot 井戸／弁護士席 雇う his 歳入 in any other way than in 持続するing, perhaps, a thousand families, who are all of them やむを得ず at his 命令（する）. In the 現在の 明言する／公表する of Europe, a man of ten thousand a year can spend his whole 歳入, and he 一般に does so, without 直接／まっすぐに 持続するing twenty people, or 存在 able to 命令（する） more than ten footmen not 価値（がある） the 命令（する）ing. 間接に, perhaps, he 持続するs as 広大な／多数の／重要な or even a greater number of people than he could have done by the 古代の method of expense. For though the 量 of precious 生産／産物s for which he 交流s his whole 歳入 be very small, the number of workmen 雇うd in collecting and 準備するing it must やむを得ず have been very 広大な／多数の／重要な. Its 広大な／多数の／重要な price 一般に arises from the 給料 of their 労働, and the 利益（をあげる）s of all their 即座の 雇用者s. By 支払う／賃金ing that price he 間接に 支払う／賃金s all those 給料 and 利益（をあげる）s and thus 間接に 与える／捧げるs to the 維持／整備 of all the workmen and their 雇用者s. He 一般に 与える／捧げるs, however, but a very small 割合 to that of each, to very few perhaps a tenth, to many not a hundredth, and to some not a thousandth, nor even a ten-thousandth part of their whole 年次の 維持／整備. Though he 与える／捧げるs, therefore, to the 維持／整備 of them all, they are all more or いっそう少なく 独立した・無所属 of him, because 一般に they can all be 持続するd without him.

When the 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors of land spend their rents in 持続するing their tenants and retainers, each of them 持続するs 完全に all his own tenants and all his own retainers. But when they spend them in 持続するing tradesmen and artificers, they may, all of them taken together, perhaps, 持続する as 広大な／多数の／重要な, or, on account of the waste which …に出席するs rustic 歓待, a greater number of people than before. Each of them, however, taken singly, 与える／捧げるs often but a very small 株 to the 維持／整備 of any individual of this greater number. Each tradesman or artificer derives his subsistence from the 雇用, not of one, but of a hundred or a thousand different 顧客s. Though in some 手段 強いるd to them all, therefore, he is not 絶対 扶養家族 upon any one of them.

The personal expense of the 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors having in this manner 徐々に 増加するd, it was impossible that the number of their retainers should not as 徐々に 減らす till they were at last 解任するd altogether. The same 原因（となる） 徐々に led them to 解任する the unnecessary part of their tenants. Farms were 大きくするd, and the occupiers of land, notwithstanding the （民事の）告訴s of depopulation, 減ずるd to the number necessary for cultivating it, によれば the imperfect 明言する／公表する of cultivation and 改良 in those times. By the 除去 of the unnecessary mouths, and by exacting from the 農業者 the 十分な value of the farm, a greater 黒字／過剰, or what is the same thing, the price of a greater 黒字／過剰, was 得るd for the proprietor, which the merchants and 製造業者s soon furnished him with a method of spending upon his own person in the same manner as he had done the 残り／休憩（する）. The same 原因（となる） continuing to operate, he was desirous to raise his rents above what his lands, in the actual 明言する／公表する of their 改良, could afford. His tenants could agree to this upon one 条件 only, that they should be 安全な・保証するd in their 所有／入手 for such a 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of years as might give them time to 回復する with 利益（をあげる） whatever they should lay out in the その上の 改良 of the land. The expensive vanity of the landlord made him willing to 受託する of this 条件; and hence the origin of long 賃貸し（する）s.

Even a tenant at will, who 支払う／賃金s the 十分な value of the land, is not altogether 扶養家族 upon the landlord. The pecuniary advantages which they receive from one another are 相互の and equal, and such a tenant will expose neither his life nor his fortune in the service of the proprietor. But if he has a 賃貸し（する） for a long 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of years, he is altogether 独立した・無所属; and his landlord must not 推定する／予想する from him the most trifling service beyond what is either expressly 規定するd in the 賃貸し（する） or 課すd upon him by the ありふれた and known 法律 of the country.

The tenants having in this manner become 独立した・無所属, and the retainers 存在 解任するd, the 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors were no longer 有能な of interrupting the 正規の／正選手 死刑執行 of 司法（官） or of 乱すing the peace of the country. Having sold their birthright, not like Esau for a mess of pottage in time of hunger and necessity, but in the wantonness of plenty, for trinkets and baubles, fitter to be the playthings of children than the serious 追跡s of men, they became as insignificant as any 相当な burgher or tradesman in a city. A 正規の／正選手 政府 was 設立するd in the country 同様に as in the city, nobody having 十分な 力／強力にする to 乱す its 操作／手術s in the one any more than in the other.

It does not, perhaps, relate to the 現在の 支配する, but I cannot help 発言／述べるing it, that very old families, such as have 所有するd some かなりの 広い地所 from father to son for many 連続する 世代s are very rare in 商業の countries. In countries which have little 商業, on the contrary, such as むちの跡s or the highlands of Scotland, they are very ありふれた. The Arabian histories seem to be all 十分な of genealogies, and there is a history written by a Tartar 旅宿泊所, which has been translated into several European languages, and which 含む／封じ込めるs 不十分な anything else; a proof that 古代の families are very ありふれた の中で those nations. In countries where a rich man can spend his 歳入 in no other way than by 持続するing as many people as it can 持続する, he is not apt to run out, and his benevolence it seems is seldom so violent as to 試みる／企てる to 持続する more than he can afford. But where he can spend the greatest 歳入 upon his own person, he frequently has no bounds to his expense, because he frequently has no bounds to his vanity or to his affection for his own person. In 商業の countries, therefore, riches, in spite of the most violent 規則s of 法律 to 妨げる their dissipation, very seldom remain long in the same family. の中で simple nations, on the contrary, they frequently do without any 規則s of 法律, for の中で nations of shepherds, such as the Tartars and Arabs, the consumable nature of their 所有物／資産／財産 やむを得ず （判決などを）下すs all such 規則s impossible.

A 革命 of the greatest importance to the public happiness was in this manner brought about by two different orders of people who had not the least 意向 to serve the public. To gratify the most childish vanity was the 単独の 動機 of the 広大な／多数の／重要な proprietors. The merchants and artificers, much いっそう少なく ridiculous, 行為／法令／行動するd 単に from a 見解（をとる） to their own 利益／興味, and in 追跡 of their own pedlar 原則 of turning a penny wherever a penny was to be got. Neither of them had either knowledge or foresight of that 広大な／多数の／重要な 革命 which the folly of the one, and the 産業 of the other, was 徐々に bringing about.

It is thus that through the greater part of Europe the 商業 and 製造（する）s of cities, instead of 存在 the 影響, have been the 原因（となる） and occasion of the 改良 and cultivation of the country.

This order, however, 存在 contrary to the natural course of things, is やむを得ず both slow and uncertain. Compare the slow 進歩 of those European countries of which the wealth depends very much upon their 商業 and 製造（する）s with the 早い 前進するs of our North American 植民地s, of which the wealth is 設立するd altogether in 農業. Through the greater part of Europe the number of inhabitants is not supposed to 二塁打 in いっそう少なく than five hundred years. In several of our North American 植民地s, it is 設立する to 二塁打 in twenty or five-and-twenty years. In Europe, the 法律 of primogeniture and perpetuities of different 肉親，親類d 妨げる the 分割 of 広大な／多数の／重要な 広い地所s, and その為に 妨げる the multiplication of small proprietors. A small proprietor, however, who knows every part of his little 領土, who 見解（をとる）s it with all the affection which 所有物／資産／財産, 特に small 所有物／資産／財産, 自然に 奮起させるs, and who upon that account takes 楽しみ not only in cultivating but in adorning it, is 一般に of all improvers the most industrious, the most intelligent, and the most successful. The same 規則s, besides, keep so much land out of the market that there are always more 資本／首都s to buy than there is land to sell, so that what is sold always sells at a monopoly price. The rent never 支払う／賃金s the 利益／興味 of the 購入（する）-money, and is, besides, 重荷（を負わせる）d with 修理s and other 時折の 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金s to which the 利益／興味 of money is not liable. To 購入（する） land is everywhere in Europe a most 無益な 雇用 of a small 資本／首都. For the sake of the superior 安全, indeed, a man of 穏健な circumstances, when he retires from 商売／仕事, will いつかs choose to lay out his little 資本／首都 in land. A man of profession too, whose 歳入 is derived from. another source, often loves to 安全な・保証する his 貯金 in the same way. But a young man, who, instead of 適用するing to 貿易（する） or to some profession, should 雇う a 資本／首都 of two or three thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs in the 購入（する） and cultivation of a small piece of land, might i ndeed 推定する／予想する to live very happily, and very 独立して, but must 企て，努力，提案 adieu forever to all hope of either 広大な／多数の／重要な fortune or 広大な／多数の／重要な illustration, which by a different 雇用 of his 在庫／株 he might have had the same chance of acquiring with other people. Such a person too, though he cannot aspire at 存在 a proprietor, will often disdain to be a 農業者. The small 量 of land, therefore, which is brought to market, and the high price of what is brought thither, 妨げるs a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of 資本／首都s from 存在 雇うd in its cultivation and 改良 which would さもなければ have taken that direction. In North America, on the contrary, fifty or sixty 続けざまに猛撃するs is often 設立する a 十分な 在庫／株 to begin a 農園 with. The 購入（する） and 改良 of uncultivated land is there the most profitable 雇用 of the smallest 同様に as of the greatest 資本／首都s, and the most direct road to all the fortune and illustration which can be acquired in that country. Such land, indeed, is in North America to be had almost for nothing, or at a price much below the value of the natural produce- a thing impossible in Europe, or, indeed, in any country where all lands have long been 私的な 所有物／資産／財産. If landed 広い地所s, however, were divided 平等に の中で all the children upon the death of any proprietor who left a 非常に／多数の family, the 広い地所 would 一般に be sold. So much land would come to market that it could no longer sell at a monopoly price. The 解放する／自由な rent of the land would go nearer to 支払う／賃金 the 利益／興味 of the 購入（する）-money, and a small 資本／首都 might be 雇うd in 購入（する）ing land as profitably as in any other way.

England, on account of the natural fertility of the 国／地域, of the 広大な／多数の／重要な extent of the sea-coast in 割合 to that of the whole country, and of the many navigable rivers which run through it and afford the conveniency of water carriage to some of the most inland parts of it, is perhaps 同様に fitted by nature as any large country in Europe to be the seat of foreign 商業, of 製造（する）s for distant sale, and of all the 改良s which these can occasion. From the beginning of the 統治する of Elizabeth too, the English 立法機関 has been peculiarly attentive to the 利益／興味s of 商業 and 製造（する）s, and in reality there is no country in Europe, Holland itself not excepted, of which the 法律 is, upon the whole, more favourable to this sort of 産業. 商業 and 製造（する）s have accordingly been continually 前進するing during all this period. The cultivation and 改良 of the country has, no 疑問, been 徐々に 前進するing too; but it seems to have followed slowly, and at a distance, the more 早い 進歩 of 商業 and 製造（する）s. The greater part of the country must probably have been cultivated before the 統治する of Elizabeth; and a very 広大な／多数の／重要な part of it still remains uncultivated, and the cultivation of the far greater part much inferior to what it might be. The 法律 of England, however, favours 農業 not only 間接に by the 保護 of 商業, but by several direct 激励s. Except in times of scarcity, the exportation of corn is not only 解放する／自由な, but encouraged by a bounty. In times of 穏健な plenty, the 輸入 of foreign corn is 負担d with 義務s that 量 to a 禁止. The 輸入 of live cattle, except from Ireland, is 禁じるd at all times, and it is but of late that it was permitted from thence. Those who cultivate the land, therefore, have a monopoly against their countrymen for the two greatest and most important articles of land produce, bread and butcher's meat. These 激励s, though at 底（に届く）, perhaps, as I shall endeavour to show her eafter, altogether illusory, 十分に 論証する at least the good 意向 of the 立法機関 to favour 農業. But what is of much more importance than all of them, the yeomanry of England are （判決などを）下すd as 安全な・保証する, as 独立した・無所属, and as respectable as 法律 can make them. No country, therefore, in which the 権利 of primogeniture takes place, which 支払う／賃金s tithes, and where perpetuities, though contrary to the spirit of the 法律, are 認める in some 事例／患者s, can give more 激励 to 農業 than England. Such, however, notwithstanding, is the 明言する／公表する of its cultivation. What would it have been had the 法律 given no direct 激励 to 農業 besides what arises 間接に from the 進歩 of 商業, and had left the yeomanry in the same 条件 as in most other countries of Europe? It is now more than two hundred years since the beginning of the 統治する of Elizabeth, a period as long as the course of human 繁栄 usually 耐えるs.

フラン seems to have had a かなりの 株 of foreign 商業 近づく a century before England was distinguished as a 商業の country. The 海洋 of フラン was かなりの, によれば the notions of the times, before the 探検隊／遠征隊 of Charles VIII to Naples. The cultivation and 改良 of フラン, however, is, upon the whole, inferior to that of England. The 法律 of the country has never given the same direct 激励 to 農業.

The foreign 商業 of Spain and Portugal to the other parts of Europe, though 主として carried on in foreign ships, is very かなりの. That to their 植民地s is carried on in their own, and is much greater, on account of the 広大な／多数の／重要な riches and extent of those 植民地s. But it has never introduced any かなりの 製造（する）s for distant sale into either of those countries, and the greater part of both still remains uncultivated. The foreign 商業 of Portugal is of older standing than that of any 広大な／多数の／重要な country in Europe, except Italy.

Italy is the only 広大な／多数の／重要な country of Europe which seems to have been cultivated and 改善するd in every part by means of foreign 商業 and 製造（する）s for distant sale. Before the 侵略 of Charles VIII, Italy によれば Guicciardin, was cultivated not いっそう少なく in the most 山地の and barren parts of the country than in the plainest and most fertile. The advantageous 状況／情勢 of the country, and the 広大な／多数の／重要な number of 独立した・無所属 明言する／公表するs which at that time subsisted in it, probably 与える／捧げるd not a little to this general cultivation. It is not impossible too, notwithstanding this general 表現 of one of the most judicious and reserved of modern historians, that Italy was not at that time better cultivated than England is at 現在の.

The 資本／首都, however, that is acquired to any country by 商業 and 製造（する）s is all a very 不安定な and uncertain 所有／入手 till some part of it has been 安全な・保証するd and realized in the cultivation and 改良 of its lands. A merchant, it has been said very 適切に, is not やむを得ず the 国民 of any particular country. It is in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 indifferent to him from what place he carries on his 貿易（する）; and a very trifling disgust will make him 除去する his 資本／首都, and together with it all the 産業 which it supports, from one country to another. No part of it can be said to belong to any particular country, till it has been spread as it were over the 直面する of that country, either in buildings or in the 継続している 改良 of lands. No 痕跡 now remains of the 広大な／多数の／重要な wealth said to have been 所有するd by the greater part of the Hans towns except in the obscure histories of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. It is even uncertain where some of them were 据えるd or to what towns in Europe the Latin 指名するs given to some of them belong. But though the misfortunes of Italy in the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries 大いに 減らすd the 商業 and 製造（する）s of the cities of Lombardy and Tuscany, those countries still continue to be の中で the most populous and best cultivated in Europe. The civil wars of Flanders, and the Spanish 政府 which 後継するd them, chased away the 広大な／多数の／重要な 商業 of Antwerp, Ghent, and Bruges. But Flanders still continues to be one of the richest, best cultivated, and most populous 州s of Europe. The ordinary 革命s of war and 政府 easily 乾燥した，日照りの up the sources of that wealth which arises from 商業 only. That which arises from the more solid 改良s of 農業 is much more 持続する and cannot be destroyed but by those more violent convulsions occasioned by the depredations of 敵意を持った and barbarous nations continued for a century or two together, such as those that happened for some time before and after the 落ちる of the Roman empire in the western 州s of Europe.