調書をとる／予約する One, 一時期／支部 XI

• Of the Rent of Land
  
• Part 1. Of the Produce of Land which always affords Rent
  
• Part 2. Of the Produce of Land which いつかs does, and いつかs does not, afford Rent
  
• Part 3. Of the Variations in the 割合s between the respektive Values of that Sort of Produce which always affords Rent, and of that which いつかs does and いつかs does not afford Rent
  
• Digression 関心ing the Variations in the Value of Silver during the Course of the Four last Centuries.
  
• Variations in the 割合 between the 各々の Values of Gold and Silver
  
• Grounds of the 疑惑 that the Value of Silver still continues to 減少（する）
  
• Different 影響s of the 進歩 of 改良 upon the real Price of three different Sorts of rude Produce
  
• 結論 of the Digression 関心ing the Variations in the Value of Silver
  
• 影響s of the 進歩 of 改良 upon the real Price of 製造（する）s
  
• 結論 of the 一時期／支部

一時期／支部 XI
Of the Rent of Land

The rent of land, it may be thought, is frequently no more than a reasonable 利益（をあげる） or 利益／興味 for the 在庫／株 laid out by the landlord upon its 改良. This, no 疑問, may be partly the 事例／患者 upon some occasions; for it can 不十分な ever be more than partly the 事例／患者. The landlord 需要・要求するs a rent even for unimproved land, and the supposed 利益／興味 or 利益（をあげる） upon the expense of 改良 is 一般に an 新規加入 to this 初めの rent. Those 改良s, besides, are not always made by the 在庫／株 of the landlord, but いつかs by that of the tenant. When the 賃貸し（する） comes to be 新たにするd, however, the landlord 一般的に 需要・要求するs the same augmentation of rent as if they had been all made by his own.

He いつかs 需要・要求するs rent for what is altogether incapable of human 改良. Kelp is a 種類 of sea-少しのd, which, when burnt, 産する／生じるs an alkaline salt, useful for making glass, soap, and for several other 目的s. It grows in several parts of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, 特に in Scotland, upon such 激しく揺するs only as 嘘（をつく） within the high water 示す, which are twice every day covered with the sea, and of which the produce, therefore, was never augmented by human 産業. The landlord, however, whose 広い地所 is bounded by a kelp shore of this 肉親，親類d, 需要・要求するs a rent for it as much as for his corn fields.

The sea in the neighbourhood of the islands of Shetland is more than 一般的に abundant in fish, which makes a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the subsistence of their inhabitants. But ーするために 利益（をあげる） by the produce of the water, they must have a habitation upon the 隣人ing land. The rent of the landlord is in 割合, not to what the 農業者 can make by the land, but to what he can make both by the land and by the water. It is partly paid in sea-fish; and one of the very few instances in which rent makes a part of the price of that 商品／必需品 is to be 設立する in that country.

The rent of the land, therefore, considered as the price paid for the use of the land, is 自然に a monopoly price. It is not at all 割合d to what the landlord may have laid out upon the 改良 of the land, or to what he can afford to take; but to what the 農業者 can afford to give.

Such parts only of the produce of land can 一般的に be brought to market of which the ordinary price is 十分な to 取って代わる the 在庫／株 which must be 雇うd in bringing them thither, together with its ordinary 利益（をあげる）s. If the ordinary price is more than this, the 黒字／過剰 part of it will 自然に go to the rent of land. If it is not more, though the 商品／必需品 may be brought to market, it can afford no rent to the landlord. Whether the price is or is not more depends upon the 需要・要求する.

There are some parts of the produce of land for which the 需要・要求する must always be such as to afford a greater price than what is 十分な to bring them to market; and there are others for which it either may or may not be such as to afford this greater price. The former must always afford a rent to the landlord. The latter いつかs may, and いつかs may not, によれば different circumstances.

Rent, it is to be 観察するd, therefore, enters into the composition of the price of 商品／必需品s in a different way from 給料 and 利益（をあげる）. High or low 給料 and 利益（をあげる） are the 原因（となる）s of high or low price; high or low rent is the 影響 of it. It is because high or low 給料 and 利益（をあげる） must be paid, ーするために bring a particular 商品／必需品 to market, that its price is high or low. But it is because its price is high or low; a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 more, or very little more, or no more, than what is 十分な to 支払う／賃金 those 給料 and 利益（をあげる）, that it affords a high rent, or a low rent, or no rent at all.

The particular consideration, first, of those parts of the produce of land which always afford some rent; secondly, of those which いつかs may and いつかs may not afford rent; and, thirdly, of the variations which, in the different periods of 改良, 自然に take place in the 親族 value of those two different sorts of rude produce, when compared both with one another and with 製造（する）d 商品／必需品s, will divide this 一時期／支部 into three parts.

Part 1: Of the Produce of Land which always affords Rent

But land, in almost any 状況／情勢, produces a greater 量 of food than what is 十分な to 持続する all the 労働 necessary for bringing it to market in the most 自由主義の way in which that 労働 is ever 持続するd. The 黒字／過剰, too, is always more than 十分な to 取って代わる the 在庫／株 which 雇うd that 労働, together with its 利益（をあげる）s. Something, therefore, always remains for a rent to the landlord.

The most 砂漠 moors in Norway and Scotland produce some sort of pasture for cattle, of which the milk and the 増加する are always more than 十分な, not only to 持続する all the 労働 necessary for tending them, and to 支払う／賃金 the ordinary 利益（をあげる） to the 農業者 or owner of the herd or flock; but to afford some small rent to the landlord. The rent 増加するs in 割合 to the goodness of the pasture. The same extent of ground not only 持続するs a greater number of cattle, but as they are brought within a smaller compass, いっそう少なく 労働 becomes requisite to tend them, and to collect their produce. The landlord 伸び（る）s both ways, by the 増加する of the produce and by the diminution of the 労働 which must be 持続するd out of it.

The rent of land not only 変化させるs with its fertility, whatever be its produce, but with its 状況／情勢, whatever be its fertility. Land in the neighbourhood of a town gives a greater rent than land 平等に fertile in a distant part of the country. Though it may cost no more 労働 to cultivate the one than the other, it must always cost more to bring the produce of the distant land to market. A greater 量 of 労働, therefore, must be 持続するd out of it; and the 黒字／過剰, from which are drawn both the 利益（をあげる） of the 農業者 and the rent of the landlord, must be 減らすd. But in remote parts of the country the 率 of 利益（をあげる）s, as has already been shown, is 一般に higher than in the neighbourhood of a large town. A smaller 割合 of this 減らすd 黒字／過剰, therefore, must belong to the landlord.

Good roads, canals, and navigable rivers, by 減らすing the expense of carriage, put the remote parts of the country more nearly upon a level with those in the neighbourhood of the town. They are upon that account the greatest of all 改良s. They encourage the cultivation of the remote, which must always be the most 広範囲にわたる circle of the country. They are advantageous to the town, by breaking 負かす／撃墜する the monopoly of the country in its neighbourhood. They are advantageous even to that part of the country. Though they introduce some 競争相手 商品／必需品s into the old market, they open many new markets to its produce. Monopoly, besides, is a 広大な／多数の／重要な enemy to good 管理／経営, which can never be universally 設立するd but in consequence of that 解放する／自由な and 全世界の／万国共通の 競争 which 軍隊s everybody to have 頼みの綱 to it for the sake of self-defence. It is not more than fifty years ago that some of the 郡s in the neighbourhood of London 嘆願（書）d the 議会 against the 拡張 of the turnpike roads into the remoter 郡s. Those remoter 郡s, they pretended, from the cheapness of 労働, would be able to sell their grass and corn cheaper in the London market than themselves, and would その為に 減ずる their rents, and 廃虚 their cultivation. Their rents, however, have risen, and their cultivation has been 改善するd since that time.

A とうもろこし畑／穀物畑 of 穏健な fertility produces a much greater 量 of food for man than the best pasture of equal extent. Though its cultivation 要求するs much more 労働, yet the 黒字／過剰 which remains after 取って代わるing the seed and 持続するing all that 労働, is likewise much greater. If a 続けざまに猛撃する of butcher's meat, therefore, was never supposed to be 価値（がある） more than a 続けざまに猛撃する of bread, this greater 黒字／過剰 would everywhere be of greater value, and 構成する a greater 基金 both for the 利益（をあげる） of the 農業者 and the rent of the landlord. It seems to have done so universally in the rude beginnings of 農業.

But the 親族 values of those two different 種類 of food, bread and butcher's meat, are very different in the different periods of 農業. In its rude beginnings, the unimproved wilds, which then 占領する the far greater part of the country, are all abandoned to cattle. There is more butcher's meat than bread, and bread, therefore, is the food for which there is the greatest 競争, and which その結果 brings the greatest price. At Buenos Ayres, we are told by Ulloa, four reals, one-and-twenty pence halfpenny 英貨の／純銀の, was, forty or fifty years ago, the ordinary price of an ox, chosen from a herd of two or three hundred. He says nothing of the price of bread, probably because he 設立する nothing remarkable about it. An ox there, he says, cost little more than the 労働 of catching him. But corn can nowhere be raised without a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 of 労働, and in a country which lies upon the river Plate, at that time the direct road from Europe to the silver 地雷s of Potosi, the money price of 労働 could not be very cheap. It is さもなければ when cultivation is 延長するd over the greater part of the country. There is then more bread than butcher's meat. The 競争 changes its direction, and the price of butcher's meat becomes greater than the price of bread.

By the 拡張 besides of cultivation, the unimproved wilds become insufficient to 供給（する） the 需要・要求する for butcher's meat. A 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the cultivated lands must be 雇うd in 後部ing and fattening cattle, of which the price, therefore, must be 十分な to 支払う／賃金, not only the 労働 necessary for tending them, but the rent which the landlord and the 利益（をあげる） which the 農業者 could have drawn from such land 雇うd in tillage. The cattle bred upon the most uncultivated moors, when brought to the same market, are, in 割合 to their 負わせる or goodness, sold at the same price as those which are 後部d upon the most 改善するd land. The proprietors of those moors 利益（をあげる） by it, and raise the rent of their land in 割合 to the price of their cattle. It is not more than a century ago that in many parts of the highlands of Scotland, butcher's meat was as cheap or cheaper than even bread made of oatmeal. The union opened the market of England to the highland cattle. Their ordinary price is at 現在の about three times greater than at the beginning of the century, and the rents of many highland 広い地所s have been ３倍になるd and quadrupled in the same time. In almost every part of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain a 続けざまに猛撃する of the best butcher's meat is, in the 現在の times, 一般に 価値（がある） more than two 続けざまに猛撃するs of the best white bread; and in plentiful years it is いつかs 価値（がある） three or four 続けざまに猛撃するs.

It is thus that in the 進歩 of 改良 the rent and 利益（をあげる） of unimproved pasture come to be 規制するd in some 手段 by the rent and 利益（をあげる） of what is 改善するd, and these again by the rent and 利益（をあげる） of corn. Corn is an 年次の 刈る. Butcher's meat, a 刈る which 要求するs four or five years to grow. As an acre of land, therefore, will produce a much smaller 量 of the one 種類 of food than of the other, the inferiority of the 量 must be 補償するd by the 優越 of the price. If it was more than 補償するd, more corn land would be turned into pasture; and if it was not 補償するd, part of what was in pasture would be brought 支援する into corn.

This equality, however, between the rent and 利益（をあげる） of grass and those of corn; of the land of which the 即座の produce is food for cattle, and of that of which the 即座の produce is food for men; must be understood to take place only through the greater part of the 改善するd lands of a 広大な／多数の／重要な country. In some particular 地元の 状況／情勢s it is やめる さもなければ, and the rent and 利益（をあげる） of grass are much superior to what can be made by corn.

Thus in the neighbourhood of a 広大な／多数の／重要な town the 需要・要求する for milk and for forage to horses frequently 与える／捧げる, together with the high price of butcher's meat, to raise the value of grass above what may be called its natural 割合 to that of corn. This 地元の advantage, it is evident, cannot be communicated to the lands at a distance.

Particular circumstances have いつかs （判決などを）下すd some countries so populous that the whole 領土, like the lands in the neighbourhood of a 広大な／多数の／重要な town, has not been 十分な to produce both the grass and the corn necessary for the subsistence of their inhabitants. Their lands, therefore, have been principally 雇うd in the 生産／産物 of grass, the more bulky 商品／必需品, and which cannot be so easily brought from a 広大な／多数の／重要な distance; and corn, the food of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, has been 主として 輸入するd from foreign countries. Holland is at 現在の in this 状況／情勢, and a かなりの part of 古代の Italy seems to have been so during the 繁栄 of the Romans. To 料金d 井戸／弁護士席, old Cato said, as we are told by Cicero, was the first and most profitable thing in the 管理／経営 of a 私的な 広い地所; to 料金d tolerably 井戸／弁護士席, the second; and to 料金d ill, the third. To plough, he 階級d only in the fourth place of 利益（をあげる） and advantage. Tillage, indeed, in that part of 古代の Italy which lay in the neighbourhood of Rome, must have been very much discouraged by the 配当s of corn which were frequently made to the people, either gratuitously, or at a very low price. This corn was brought from the 征服する／打ち勝つd 州s, of which several, instead of 税金s, were 強いるd to furnish a tenth part of their produce at a 明言する／公表するd price, about sixpence a つつく／ペック, to the 共和国. The low price at which this corn was 分配するd to the people must やむを得ず have sunk the price of what could be brought to the Roman market from Latium, or the 古代の 領土 of Rome, and must have discouraged its cultivation in that country.

In an open country too, of which the 主要な／長／主犯 produce is corn, a 井戸／弁護士席-enclosed piece of grass will frequently rent higher than any corn field in its neighbourhood. It is convenient for the 維持／整備 of the cattle 雇うd in the cultivation of the corn, and its high rent is, in this 事例／患者, not so 適切に paid from the value of its own produce as from that of the corn lands which are cultivated by means of it. It is likely to 落ちる, if ever the 隣人ing lands are 完全に enclosed. The 現在の high rent of enclosed land in Scotland seems 借りがあるing to the scarcity of enclosure, and will probably last no longer than that scarcity. The advantage of enclosure is greater for pasture than for corn. It saves the 労働 of guarding the cattle, which 料金d better, too, when they are not liable to be 乱すd by their keeper or his dog.

But where there is no 地元の advantage of this 肉親，親類d, the rent and 利益（をあげる） of corn, or whatever else is the ありふれた vegetable food or the people, must 自然に 規制する, upon the land which is fit for producing it, the rent and 利益（をあげる） of pasture.

The use of the 人工的な grasses, of turnips, carrots, cabbages, and the other expedients which have been fallen upon to make an equal 量 of land 料金d a greater number of cattle than when in natural grass, should somewhat 減ずる, it might be 推定する／予想するd, the 優越 which, in an 改善するd country, the price of butcher's meat 自然に has over that of bread. It seems accordingly to have done so; and there is some 推論する／理由 for believing that, at least in the London market, the price of butcher's meat in 割合 to the price of bread is a good 取引，協定 lower in the 現在の times than it was in the beginning of the last century.

In the 虫垂 to the Life of Prince Henry, Doctor Birch has given us an account of the prices of butcher's meat as 一般的に paid by that prince. It is there said that the four ４半期/4分の1s of an ox 重さを計るing six hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs usually cost him nine 続けざまに猛撃するs ten shillings, or thereabouts; that is, thirty-one shillings and eightpence per hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs 負わせる. Prince Henry died on the 6th of November 1612, in the nineteenth year of his age.

In March 1764, there was a 議会の 調査 into the 原因（となる）s of the high price of 準備／条項s at that time. It was then, の中で other proof to the same 目的, given in 証拠 by a Virginia merchant, that in March 1763, he had victualled his ships for twenty-four or twenty-five shillings the hundredweight of beef, which he considered as the ordinary price; 反して, in that dear year, he had paid twenty-seven shillings for the same 負わせる and sort. This high price in 1764 is, however, four shillings and eightpence cheaper than the ordinary price paid by Prince Henry; and it is the best beef only, it must be 観察するd, which is fit to be salted for those distant voyages.

The price paid by Prince Henry 量s to 3 3/4d. per 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる of the whole carcase, coarse and choice pieces taken together; and at that 率 the choice pieces could not have been sold by 小売 for いっそう少なく than 4 1/2d. or 5d. the 続けざまに猛撃する.

In the 議会の 調査 in 1764, the 証言，証人／目撃するs 明言する／公表するd the price of the choice pieces of the best beef to be to the 消費者 4d. and 4 1/4d. the 続けざまに猛撃する; and the coarse pieces in general to be from seven farthings to 2 1/2d. and this they said was in general one halfpenny dearer than the same sort of pieces had usually been sold in the month of March. But even this high price is still a good 取引，協定 cheaper than what we can 井戸／弁護士席 suppose the ordinary 小売 price to have been the time of Prince Henry.

During the twelve first years of the last century, the 普通の／平均（する） price of the best wheat at the Windsor market was L1 18s. 3 1/6d. the ４半期/4分の1 of nine Winchester bushels.

But in the twelve years 先行する 1764, 含むing that year, the 普通の／平均（する） price of the same 手段 of the best wheat at the same market was L2 1s. 9 1/2d.

In the twelve first years of the last century, therefore, wheat appears to have been a good 取引，協定 cheaper, and butcher's meat a good 取引，協定 dearer, than in the twelve years 先行する 1764, 含むing that year.

In all 広大な／多数の／重要な countries the greater part of the cultivated lands are 雇うd in producing either food for men or food for cattle. The rent and 利益（をあげる） of these 規制する the rent and 利益（をあげる） of all other cultivated land. If any particular produce afforded いっそう少なく, the land would soon be turned into corn or pasture; and if any afforded more, some part of the lands in corn or pasture would soon be turned to that produce.

Those 生産／産物s, indeed, which 要求する either a greater 初めの expense of 改良, or a greater 年次の expense of cultivation, ーするために fit the land for them, appear 一般的に to afford, the one a greater rent, the other a greater 利益（をあげる） than corn or pasture. This 優越, however, will seldom be 設立する to 量 to more than a reasonable 利益／興味 or 補償（金） for this superior expense.

In a hop garden, a fruit garden, a kitchen garden, both the rent of the landlord, and the 利益（をあげる） of the 農業者, are 一般に greater than in a corn or grass field. But to bring the ground into this 条件 要求するs more expense. Hence a greater rent becomes 予定 to the landlord. It 要求するs, too, a more attentive and skilful 管理／経営. Hence a greater 利益（をあげる） becomes 予定 to the 農業者. The 刈る too, at least in the hop and fruit garden, is more 不安定な. Its price, therefore, besides 補償するing all 時折の losses, must afford something like the 利益（をあげる） of 保険. The circumstances of gardeners, 一般に mean, and always 穏健な, may 満足させる us that their 広大な／多数の／重要な ingenuity is not 一般的に over-recompensed. Their delightful art is practised by so many rich people for amusement, that little advantage is to be made by those who practise it for 利益（をあげる）; because the persons who should 自然に be their best 顧客s 供給（する） themselves with all their most precious 生産／産物s.

The advantage which the landlord derives from such 改良s seems at no time to have been greater than what was 十分な to 補償する the 初めの expense of making them. In the 古代の husbandry, after the vineyard, a 井戸／弁護士席-watered kitchen garden seems to have been the part of the farm which was supposed to 産する／生じる the most 価値のある produce. But Democritus, who wrote upon husbandry about two thousand years ago, and who was regarded by the 古代のs as one of the fathers of the art, thought they did not 行為／法令／行動する wisely who enclosed a kitchen garden. The 利益（をあげる）, he said, would not 補償する the expense of a 石／投石する 塀で囲む; and bricks (he meant, I suppose, bricks baked in the sun) mouldered with the rain, and the winter 嵐／襲撃する, and 要求するd continual 修理s. Columella, who 報告（する）／憶測s this judgment of Democritus, does not controvert it, but 提案するs a very frugal method of enclosing with a hedge of brambles and briars, which, he says, he had 設立する by experience to be both a 継続している and an impenetrable 盗品故買者; but which, it seems, was not 一般的に known in the time of Democritus. Palladius 可決する・採択するs the opinion of Columella, which had before been recommended by Varro. In the judgment of those 古代の improvers, the produce of a kitchen garden had, it seems, been little more than 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の culture and the expense of watering; for in countries so 近づく the sun, it was thought proper, in those times as in the 現在の, to have the 命令（する） of a stream of water which could be 行為／行うd to every bed in the garden. Through the greater part of Europe a kitchen garden is not at 現在の supposed to deserve a better enclosure than that recommended by Columella. In 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and some other northern countries, the finer fruits cannot be brought to perfection but by the 援助 of a 塀で囲む. Their price, therefore, in such countries must be 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the expense of building and 持続するing what they cannot be had without. The fruit-塀で囲む frequently surrounds the kitchen garden, which thus enjoys the benefi t of an enclosure which its own produce could seldom 支払う／賃金 for.

That the vineyard, when 適切に 工場／植物d and brought to perfection, was the most 価値のある part of the farm, seems to have been an undoubted maxim in the 古代の 農業, as it is in the modern through all the ワイン countries. But whether it was advantageous to 工場／植物 a new vineyard was a 事柄 of 論争 の中で the 古代の Italian husbandmen, as we learn from Columella. He decides, like a true lover of all curious cultivation, in favour of the vineyard, and endeavours to show, by a comparison of the 利益（をあげる） and expense, that it was a most advantageous 改良. Such comparisons, however, between the 利益（をあげる） and expense of new 事業／計画（する）s are 一般的に very fallacious, and in nothing more so than in 農業. Had the 伸び（る） 現実に made by such 農園s been 一般的に as 広大な／多数の／重要な as he imagined it might have been, there could have been no 論争 about it. The same point is frequently at this day a 事柄 of 論争 in the ワイン countries. Their writers on 農業, indeed, the lovers and promoters of high cultivation, seem 一般に 性質の／したい気がして to decide with Columella in favour of the vineyard. In フラン the 苦悩 of the proprietors of the old vineyards to 妨げる the 工場／植物ing of any new ones, seems to favour their opinion, and to 示す a consciousness in those who must have the experience that this 種類 of cultivation is at 現在の in that country more profitable than any other. It seems at the same time, however, to 示す another opinion, that this superior 利益（をあげる） can last no longer than the 法律s which at 現在の 抑制する the 解放する／自由な cultivation of the vine. In 1731, they 得るd an order of 会議 禁じるing both the 工場／植物ing of new vineyards and the 再開 of those old ones, of which the cultivation had been interrupted for two years, without a particular 許可 from the king, to be 認めるd only in consequence of an （警察などへの）密告，告訴（状） from the intendant of the 州, certifying that he had 診察するd the land, and that it was incapable of any other culture. The pretence of this order was the sc arcity of corn and pasture, and the superabundance of ワイン. But had this superabundance been real, it would, without any order of 会議, have effectually 妨げるd the 農園 of new vineyards, by 減ずるing the 利益（をあげる）s of this 種類 of cultivation below their natural 割合 to those of corn and pasture. With regard to the supposed scarcity of corn, occasioned by the multiplication of vineyards, corn is nowhere in フラン more carefully cultivated than in the ワイン 州s, where the land is fit for producing it; as in Burgundy, Guienne, and the Upper Languedoc. The 非常に／多数の 手渡すs 雇うd in the one 種類 of cultivation やむを得ず encourage the other, by affording a ready market for its produce. To 減らす the number of those who are 有能な of 支払う／賃金ing for it is surely a most unpromising expedient for encouraging the cultivation of corn. It is like the 政策 which would 促進する 農業 by discouraging 製造（する）s.

The rent and 利益（をあげる） of those 生産／産物s, therefore, which 要求する either a greater 初めの expense of 改良 ーするために fit the land for them, or a greater 年次の expense of cultivation, though often much superior to those of corn and pasture, yet when they do no more than 補償する such 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の expense, are in reality 規制するd by the rent and 利益（をあげる） of those ありふれた 刈るs.

It いつかs happens, indeed, that the 量 of land, which can be fitted for some particular produce, is too small to 供給（する） the effectual 需要・要求する. The whole produce can be 性質の／したい気がして of to those who are willing to give somewhat more than what is 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the whole rent, 給料, and 利益（をあげる） necessary for raising and bringing it to market, によれば their natural 率s, or によれば the 率s at which they are paid in the greater part of other cultivated land. The 黒字／過剰 part of the price which remains after defraying the whole expense of 改良 and cultivation may 一般的に, in this 事例／患者, and in this 事例／患者 only, 耐える no 正規の／正選手 割合 to the like 黒字／過剰 in corn or pasture, but may 越える it in almost any degree; and the greater part of this 超過 自然に goes to the rent of the landlord.

The usual and natural 割合, for example, between the rent and 利益（をあげる） of ワイン and those of corn and pasture must be understood to take place only with regard to those vineyards which produce nothing but good ありふれた ワイン, such as can be raised almost anywhere, upon any light, gravelly, or sandy 国／地域, and which has nothing to recommend it but its strength and wholesomeness. It is with such vineyards only that the ありふれた land of the country can be brought into 競争; for with those of a peculiar 質 it is evident that it cannot.

The vine is more 影響する／感情d by the difference of 国／地域s than any other fruit tree. From some it derives a flavour which no culture or 管理／経営 can equal, it is supposed, upon any other. This flavour, real or imaginary, is いつかs peculiar to the produce of a few vineyards; いつかs it 延長するs through the greater part of a small 地区, and いつかs through a かなりの part of a large 州. The whole 量 of such ワインs that is brought to market 落ちるs short of the effectual 需要・要求する, or the 需要・要求する of those who would be willing to 支払う／賃金 the whole rent, 利益（をあげる）, and 給料, necessary for 準備するing and bringing them thither, によれば the ordinary 率, or によれば the 率 at which they are paid in ありふれた vineyards. The whole 量, therefore, can be 性質の／したい気がして of to those who are willing to 支払う／賃金 more, which やむを得ず raises the price above that of ありふれた ワイン. The difference is greater or いっそう少なく （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the fashionableness and scarcity of the ワイン （判決などを）下す the 競争 of the 買い手s more or いっそう少なく eager. Whatever it be, the greater part of it goes to the rent of the landlord. For though such vineyards are in general more carefully cultivated than most others, the high price of the ワイン seems to be not so much the 影響 as the 原因（となる） of this careful cultivation. In so 価値のある a produce the loss occasioned by 怠慢，過失 is so 広大な／多数の／重要な as to 軍隊 even the most careless to attention. A small part of this high price, therefore, is 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the 給料 of the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 労働 bestowed upon their cultivation, and the 利益（をあげる）s of the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 在庫／株 which puts that 労働 into 動議.

The sugar 植民地s 所有するd by the European nations in the West Indies may be compared to those precious vineyards. Their whole produce 落ちるs short of the effectual 需要・要求する of Europe, and can be 性質の／したい気がして of to those who are willing to give more than what is 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the whole rent, 利益（をあげる）, and 給料 necessary for 準備するing and bringing it to market, によれば the 率 at which they are 一般的に paid by any other produce. In Cochin 中国 the finest white sugar 一般的に sells for three piasters the quintal, about thirteen shillings and sixpence of our money, as we are told by Mr. Poivre, a very careful 観察者／傍聴者 of the 農業 of that country. What is there called the quintal 重さを計るs from a hundred and fifty to two hundred Paris 続けざまに猛撃するs, or a hundred and seventy-five Paris 続けざまに猛撃するs at a medium, which 減ずるs the price of the hundred-負わせる English to about eight shillings 英貨の／純銀の, not a fourth part of what is 一般的に paid for the brown or muskavada sugars 輸入するd from our 植民地s, and not a sixth part of what is paid for the finest white sugar. The greater part of the cultivated lands in Cochin 中国 are 雇うd in producing corn and rice, the food of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people. The 各々の prices of corn, rice, and sugar, are there probably in the natural 割合, or in that which 自然に takes place in the different 刈るs of the greater part of cultivated land, and which recompenses the landlord and 農業者, as nearly as can be 計算するd によれば what is usually the 初めの expense of 改良 and the 年次の expense of cultivation. But in our sugar 植民地s the price of sugar 耐えるs no such 割合 to that of the produce of a rice or corn field either in Europe or in America. It is 一般的に said that a sugar planter 推定する／予想するs that the rum and molasses should defray the whole expense of his cultivation, and that his sugar should be all （疑いを）晴らす 利益（をあげる）. If this be true, for I pretend not to 断言する it, it is as if a corn 農業者 推定する／予想するd to defray the expense of his cultivation with the chaff and the straw, and that the 穀物 should be all （疑いを）晴らす 利益（をあげる）. We see frequently societies of merchants in London and other 貿易（する）ing town's 購入（する） waste lands in our sugar 植民地s, which they 推定する／予想する to 改善する and cultivate with 利益（をあげる） by means of factors and スパイ／執行官s, notwithstanding the 広大な／多数の／重要な distance and the uncertain returns from the 欠陥のある 行政 of 司法（官） in those countries. Nobody will 試みる／企てる to 改善する and cultivate in the same manner the most fertile lands of Scotland, Ireland, or the corn 州s of North America, though from the more exact 行政 of 司法（官） in these countries more 正規の／正選手 returns might be 推定する／予想するd.

In Virginia and Maryland the cultivation of タバコ is preferred, as more profitable, to that of corn. タバコ might be cultivated with advantage through the greater part of Europe; but in almost every part of Europe it has become a 主要な／長／主犯 支配する of 課税, and to collect a 税金 from every different farm in the country where this 工場／植物 might happen to be cultivated would be more difficult, it has been supposed, than to 徴収する one upon its 輸入 at the custom-house. The cultivation of タバコ has upon this account been most absurdly 禁じるd through the greater part of Europe, which やむを得ず gives a sort of monopoly to the countries where it is 許すd; and as Virginia and Maryland produce the greatest 量 of it, they 株 大部分は, though with some competitors, in the advantage of this monopoly. The cultivation of タバコ, however, seems not to be so advantageous as that of sugar. I have never even heard of any タバコ 農園 that was 改善するd and cultivated by the 資本／首都 of merchants who resided in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and our タバコ 植民地s send us home no such 豊富な planters as we see frequently arrive from our sugar islands. Though from the preference given in those 植民地s to the cultivation of タバコ above that of corn, it would appear that the effectual 需要・要求する of Europe for タバコ is not 完全に 供給（する）d, it probably is more nearly so than that for sugar; and though the 現在の price of タバコ is probably more than 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the whole rent, 給料, and 利益（をあげる） necessary for 準備するing and bring it to market, によれば the 率 at which they are 一般的に paid in corn land, it must not be so much more as the 現在の price of sugar. Our タバコ planters, accordingly, have shown the same 恐れる of the superabundance of タバコ which the proprietors of the old vineyards in フラン have of the superabundance of ワイン. By 行為／法令／行動する of 議会 they have 抑制するd its cultivation to six thousand 工場／植物s, supposed to 産する／生じる a thousand 負わせる of タバコ, for every negro between sixteen and sixty years of age. Such a negro, over and above this 量 of タバコ, can manage, they reckon, four acres of Indian corn. To 妨げる the market from 存在 overstocked, too, they have いつかs, in plentiful years, we are told by Dr. Douglas (I 嫌疑者，容疑者／疑う he has been ill 知らせるd), burnt a 確かな 量 of タバコ for every negro, in the same manner as the Dutch are said to do of spices. If such violent methods are necessary to keep up the 現在の price of タバコ, the superior advantage of its culture over that of corn, if it still has any, will not probably be of long continuance.

It is in this manner that the rent of the cultivated land, of which the produce is human food, 規制するs the rent of the greater part of other cultivated land. No particular produce can long afford いっそう少なく; because the land would すぐに be turned to another use. And if any particular produce 一般的に affords more, it is because the 量 of land which can be fitted for it is too small to 供給（する） the effectual 需要・要求する.

In Europe, corn is the 主要な／長／主犯 produce of land which serves すぐに for human food. Except in particular 状況／情勢s, therefore, the rent of corn land 規制するs in Europe that of all other cultivated land. Britain need envy neither the vineyards of フラン nor the olive 農園s of Italy. Except in particular 状況／情勢s, the value of these is 規制するd by that of corn, in which the fertility of Britain is not much inferior to that of either of those two countries.

If in any country the ありふれた and favourite vegetable food of the people should be drawn from a 工場／植物 of which the most ありふれた land, with the same or nearly the same culture, produced a much greater 量 than the most fertile does of corn, the rent of the landlord, or the 黒字／過剰 量 of food which would remain to him, after 支払う／賃金ing the 労働 and 取って代わるing the 在庫／株 of the 農業者, together with its ordinary 利益（をあげる）s, would やむを得ず be much greater. Whatever was the 率 at which 労働 was 一般的に 持続するd in that country, this greater 黒字／過剰 could always 持続する a greater 量 of it, and その結果 enable the landlord to 購入（する） or 命令（する） a greater 量 of it. The real value of his rent, his real 力／強力にする and 当局, his 命令（する） of the necessaries and conveniencies of life with which the 労働 of other people could 供給（する） him, would やむを得ず be much greater.

A rice field produces a much greater 量 of food than the most fertile corn field. Two 刈るs in the year from thirty to sixty bushels each, are said to be the ordinary produce of an acre. Though its cultivation, therefore, 要求するs more 労働, a much greater 黒字／過剰 remains after 持続するing all that 労働. In those rice countries, therefore, where rice is the ありふれた and favourite vegetable food of the people, and where the cultivators are 主として 持続するd with it, a greater 株 of this greater 黒字／過剰 should belong to the landlord than in corn countries. In Carolina, where the planters, as in other British 植民地s, are 一般に both 農業者s and landlords, and where rent その結果 is confounded with 利益（をあげる）, the cultivation of rice is 設立する to be more profitable than that of corn, though their fields produce only one 刈る in the year, and though, from the prevalence of the customs of Europe, rice is not there the ありふれた and favourite vegetable food of the people.

A good rice field is a bog at all seasons, and at one season a bog covered with water. It is unfit either for corn, or pasture, or vineyard, or, indeed, for any other vegetable produce that is very useful to men; and the lands which are fit for those 目的s are not fit for rice. Even in the rice countries, therefore, the rent of rice lands cannot 規制する the rent of the other cultivated land, which can never be turned to that produce.

The food produced by a field of potatoes is not inferior in 量 to that produced by a field of rice, and much superior to what is produced by a field of wheat. Twelve thousand 負わせる of potatoes from an acre of land is not a greater produce than two thousand 負わせる of wheat. The food or solid nourishment, indeed, which can be drawn from each of those two 工場／植物s, is not altogether in 割合 to their 負わせる, on account of the watery nature of potatoes. 許すing, however, half the 負わせる of this root to go to water, a very large allowance, such an acre of potatoes will still produce six thousand 負わせる of solid nourishment, three times the 量 produced by the acre of wheat. An acre of potatoes is cultivated with いっそう少なく expense than an acre of wheat; the fallow, which 一般に に先行するs the （種を）蒔くing of wheat, more than 補償するing the hoeing and other 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の culture which is always given to potatoes. Should this root ever become in any part of Europe, like rice in some rice countries, the ありふれた and favourite vegetable food of the people, so as to 占領する the same 割合 of the lands in tillage which wheat and other sorts of 穀物 for human food do at 現在の, the same 量 of cultivated land would 持続する a much greater number of people, and the labourers 存在 一般に fed with potatoes, a greater 黒字／過剰 would remain after 取って代わるing all the 在庫／株 and 持続するing all the 労働 雇うd in cultivation. A greater 株 of this 黒字／過剰, too, would belong to the landlord. 全住民 would 増加する, and rents would rise much beyond what they are at 現在の.

The land which is fit for potatoes is fit for almost every other useful vegetable. If they 占領するd the same 割合 of cultivated land which corn does at 現在の, they would 規制する, in the same manner, the rent of the greater part of other cultivated land.

In some parts of Lancashire it is pretended, I have been told, that bread of oatmeal is a heartier food for 労働ing people than wheaten bread, and I have frequently heard the same doctrine held in Scotland. I am, however, somewhat doubtful of the truth of it. The ありふれた people in Scotland, who are fed with oatmeal, are in general neither so strong, nor so handsome as the same 階級 of people in England who are fed with wheaten bread. They neither work so 井戸／弁護士席, nor look so 井戸／弁護士席; and as there is not the same difference between the people of fashion in the two countries, experience would seem to show that the food of the ありふれた people in Scotland is not so suitable to the human 憲法 as that of their 隣人s of the same 階級 in England. But it seems to be さもなければ with potatoes. The chairmen, porters, and coalheavers in London, and those unfortunate women who live by 売春, the strongest men and the most beautiful women perhaps in the British dominions, are said to be the greater part of them from the lowest 階級 of people in Ireland, who are 一般に fed with this root. No food can afford a more 決定的な proof of its nourishing 質, or of its 存在 peculiarly suitable to the health of the human 憲法.

It is difficult to 保存する potatoes through the year, and impossible to 蓄える／店 them like corn, for two or three years together. The 恐れる of not 存在 able to sell them before they rot discourages their cultivation, and is, perhaps, the 長，指導者 障害 to their ever becoming in any 広大な／多数の／重要な country, like bread, the 主要な／長／主犯 vegetable food of all the different 階級s of the people.

Part 2: Of the Produce of Land which いつかs does,
and いつかs does not, afford Rent

After food, 着せる／賦与するing and 宿泊するing are the two 広大な／多数の／重要な wants of mankind.

Land in its 初めの rude 明言する／公表する can afford the 構成要素s of 着せる／賦与するing and 宿泊するing to a much greater number of people than it can 料金d. In its 改善するd 明言する／公表する it can いつかs 料金d a greater number of people than it can 供給（する） with those 構成要素s; at least in the way in which they 要求する them, and are willing to 支払う／賃金 for them. In the one 明言する／公表する, therefore, there is always a superabundance of those 構成要素s, which are frequently, upon that account, of little or no value. In the other there is often a scarcity, which やむを得ず augments their value. In the one 明言する／公表する a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of them is thrown away as useless, and the price of what is used is considered as equal only to the 労働 and expense of fitting it for use, and can, therefore, afford no rent to the landlord. In the other they are all made use of, and there is frequently a 需要・要求する for more than can be had. Somebody is always willing to give more for every part of them than what is 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the expense of bringing them to market. Their price, therefore, can always afford some rent to the landlord.

The 肌s of the larger animals were the 初めの 構成要素s of 着せる／賦与するing. の中で nations of hunters and shepherds, therefore, whose food consists 主として in the flesh of those animals, every man, by 供給するing himself with food, 供給するs himself with the 構成要素s of more 着せる／賦与するing than he can wear. If there was no foreign 商業, the greater part of them would be thrown away as things of no value. This was probably the 事例／患者 の中で the 追跡（する）ing nations of North America before their country was discovered by the Europeans, with whom they now 交流 their 黒字／過剰 peltry for 一面に覆う／毛布s, 解雇する／砲火／射撃-武器, and brandy, which gives it some value. In the 現在の 商業の 明言する／公表する of the known world, the most barbarous nations, I believe, の中で whom land 所有物／資産／財産 is 設立するd, have some foreign 商業 of this 肉親，親類d, and find の中で their wealthier 隣人s such a 需要・要求する for all the 構成要素s of 着せる／賦与するing which their land produces, and which can neither be wrought up nor 消費するd at home, as raises their price above what it costs to send them to those wealthier 隣人s. It affords, therefore, some rent to the landlord. When the greater part of the highland cattle were 消費するd on their own hills, the exportation of their hides made the most かなりの article of the 商業 of that country, and what they were 交流d for afforded some 新規加入 to the rent of the highland 広い地所s. The wool of England, which in old times could neither be 消費するd nor wrought up at home, 設立する a market in the then wealthier and more industrious country of Flanders, and its price afforded something to the rent of the land which produced it. In countries not better cultivated than England was then, or than the highlands of Scotland are now, and which had no foreign 商業, the 構成要素s of 着せる／賦与するing would evidently be so superabundant that a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of them would be thrown away as useless, and no part could afford any rent to the landlord.

The 構成要素s of 宿泊するing cannot always be 輸送（する）d to so 広大な／多数の／重要な a distance as those of 着せる／賦与するing, and do not so readily become an 反対する of foreign 商業. When they are superabundant in the country which produces them, it frequently happens, even in the 現在の 商業の 明言する／公表する of the world, that they are of no value to the landlord. A good 石／投石する quarry in the neighbourhood of London would afford a かなりの rent. In many parts of Scotland and むちの跡s it affords 非，不，無. Barren 木材／素質 for building is of 広大な／多数の／重要な value in a populous and 井戸／弁護士席-cultivated country, and the land which produces it affords a かなりの rent. But in many parts of North America the landlord would be much 強いるd to anybody who would carry away the greater part of his large trees. In some parts of the highlands of Scotland the bark is the only part of the 支持を得ようと努めるd which, for want of roads and water-carriage, can be sent to market. The 木材／素質 is left to rot upon the ground. When the 構成要素s of 宿泊するing are so superabundant, the part made use of is 価値（がある） only the 労働 and expense of fitting it for that use. It affords no rent to the landlord, who 一般に 認めるs the use of it to whoever takes the trouble of asking it. The 需要・要求する of wealthier nations, however, いつかs enables him to get a rent for it. The 覆うing of the streets of London has enabled the owners of some barren 激しく揺するs on the coast of Scotland to draw a rent from what never afforded any before. The 支持を得ようと努めるd of Norway and of the coasts of the Baltic find a market in many parts of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain which they could not find at home, and その為に afford some rent to their proprietors.

Countries are populous not in 割合 to the number of people whom their produce can 着せる／賦与する and 宿泊する, but in 割合 to that of those whom it can 料金d. When food is 供給するd, it is 平易な to find the necessary 着せる／賦与するing and 宿泊するing. But though these are at 手渡す, it may often be difficult to find food. In some parts even of the British dominions what is called a house may be built by one day's 労働 of one man. The simplest 種類 of 着せる／賦与するing, the 肌s of animals, 要求する somewhat more 労働 to dress and 準備する them for use. They do not, however, 要求する a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定. の中で savage and barbarous nations, a hundredth or little more than a hundredth part of the 労働 of the whole year will be 十分な to 供給する them with such 着せる／賦与するing and 宿泊するing as 満足させる the greater part of the people. All the other ninety-nine parts are frequently no more than enough to 供給する them with food.

But when by the 改良 and cultivation of land the 労働 of one family can 供給する food for two, the 労働 of half the society becomes 十分な to 供給する food for the whole. The other half, therefore, or at least the greater part of them, can be 雇うd in 供給するing other things, or in 満足させるing the other wants and fancies of mankind. 着せる／賦与するing and 宿泊するing, 世帯 furniture, and what is called Equipage, are the 主要な／長／主犯 反対するs of the greater part of those wants and fancies. The rich man 消費するs no more food than his poor 隣人. In 質 it may be very different, and to select and 準備する it may 要求する more 労働 and art; but in 量 it is very nearly the same. But compare the spacious palace and 広大な／多数の／重要な wardrobe of the one with the hovel and the few rags of the other, and you will be sensible that the difference between their 着せる／賦与するing, 宿泊するing, and 世帯 furniture is almost as 広大な／多数の／重要な in 量 as it is in 質. The 願望（する） of food is 限られた／立憲的な in every man by the 狭くする capacity of the human stomach; but the 願望（する） of the conveniences and ornaments of building, dress, equipage, and 世帯 furniture, seems to have no 限界 or 確かな 境界. Those, therefore, who have the 命令（する） of more food than they themselves can 消費する, are always willing to 交流 the 黒字／過剰, or, what is the same thing, the price of it, for gratifications of this other 肉親，親類d. What is over and above 満足させるing the 限られた／立憲的な 願望（する） is given for the amusement of those 願望（する）s which cannot be 満足させるd, but seem to be altogether endless. The poor, ーするために 得る food, 発揮する themselves to gratify those fancies of the rich, and to 得る it more certainly they 争う with one another in the cheapness and perfection of their work. The number of workmen 増加するs with the 増加するing 量 of food, or with the growing 改良 and cultivation of the lands; and as the nature of their 商売／仕事 収容する／認めるs of the 最大の subdivisions of 労働, the 量 of 構成要素s which they can work up 増加するs in a much g reater 割合 than their numbers. Hence arises a 需要・要求する for every sort of 構成要素 which human 発明 can 雇う, either usefully or ornamentally, in building, dress, equipage, or 世帯 furniture; for the 化石s and minerals 含む／封じ込めるd in the bowels of the earth; the precious metals, and the precious 石／投石するs.

Food is in this manner not only the 初めの source of rent, but every other part of the produce of land which afterwards affords rent derives that part of its value from the 改良 of the 力／強力にするs of 労働 in producing food by means of the 改良 and cultivation of land.

Those other parts of the produce of land, however, which afterwards afford rent, do not afford it always. Even in 改善するd and cultivated countries, the 需要・要求する for them is not always such as to afford a greater price than what is 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the 労働, and 取って代わる, together with it ordinary 利益（をあげる）s, the 在庫／株 which must be 雇うd in bringing them to market. Whether it is or is not such depends upon different circumstances.

Whether a coal-地雷, for example, can afford any rent depends partly upon its fertility, and partly upon its 状況／情勢.

A 地雷 of any 肉親，親類d may be said to be either fertile or barren, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the 量 of mineral which can be brought from it by a 確かな 量 of 労働 is greater or いっそう少なく than what can be brought by an equal 量 from the greater part of other 地雷s of the same 肉親，親類d.

Some coal-地雷s advantageously 据えるd cannot be wrought on account of their barrenness. The produce does not 支払う／賃金 the expense. They can afford neither 利益（をあげる） nor rent.

There are some of which the produce is barely 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the 労働, and 取って代わる, together with it ordinary 利益（をあげる）s, the 在庫／株 雇うd in working them. They afford some 利益（をあげる） to the undertaker of the work, but no rent to the landlord. They can be wrought advantageously by nobody but the landlord, who, 存在 himself undertaker of the work, gets the ordinary 利益（をあげる） of the 資本／首都 which he 雇うs in it. Many coal-地雷s in Scotland are wrought in this manner, and can be wrought in no other. The landlord will 許す nobody else to work them without 支払う／賃金ing some rent, and nobody can afford to 支払う／賃金 any.

Other coal-地雷s in the same country, 十分に fertile, cannot be wrought on account of their 状況／情勢. A 量 of mineral 十分な to defray the expense of working could be brought from the 地雷 by the ordinary, or even いっそう少なく than the ordinary, 量 of 労働; but in an inland country, thinly 住むd, and without either good roads or water-carriage, this 量 could not be sold.

Coals are a いっそう少なく agreeable 燃料 than 支持を得ようと努めるd: they are said, too, to be いっそう少なく wholesome. The expense of coals, therefore, at the place where they are 消費するd, must 一般に be somewhat いっそう少なく than that of 支持を得ようと努めるd.

The price of 支持を得ようと努めるd again 変化させるs with the 明言する／公表する of 農業, nearly in the same manner, and 正確に／まさに for the same 推論する／理由, as the price of cattle. In its rude beginnings the greater part of every country is covered with 支持を得ようと努めるd, which is then a mere encumberance of no value to the landlord, who would 喜んで give it to anybody for the cutting. As 農業 前進するs, the 支持を得ようと努めるd are partly （疑いを）晴らすd by the 進歩 of tillage, and partly go to decay in consequence of the 増加するd number of cattle. These, though they do not 増加する in the same 割合 as corn, which is altogether the 取得／買収 of human 産業, yet multiply under the care and 保護 of men, who 蓄える／店 up in the season of plenty what may 持続する them in that of scarcity, who through the whole year furnish them with a greater 量 of food than uncultivated nature 供給するs for them, and who by destroying and extirpating their enemies, 安全な・保証する them in the 解放する／自由な enjoyment of all that she 供給するs. 非常に／多数の herds of cattle, when 許すd to wander through the 支持を得ようと努めるd, though they do not destroy the old trees, 妨げる any young ones from coming up so that in the course of a century or two the whole forest goes to 廃虚. The scarcity of 支持を得ようと努めるd then raises its price. It affords a good rent, and the landlord いつかs finds that he can 不十分な 雇う his best lands more advantageously than in growing barren 木材／素質, of which the greatness of the 利益（をあげる） often 補償するs the lateness of the returns. This seems in the 現在の times to be nearly the 明言する／公表する of things in several parts of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, where the 利益（をあげる） of 工場／植物ing is 設立する to be equal to that of either corn or pasture. The advantage which the landlord derives from 工場／植物ing can nowhere 越える, at least for any かなりの time, the rent which these could afford him; and in an inland country which is 高度に cultivated, it will frequently not 落ちる much short of this rent. Upon the sea-coast of a 井戸／弁護士席 改善するd country, indeed, if coals can conveniently be had for 燃料, it may いつかs be cheaper to b （犯罪の）一味 barren 木材／素質 for building from いっそう少なく cultivated foreign countries than to raise it at home. In the new town of Edinburgh, built within these few years, there is not, perhaps, a 選び出す／独身 stick of Scotch 木材／素質.

Whatever may be the price of 支持を得ようと努めるd, if that of coals is such that the expense of a coal 解雇する／砲火／射撃 is nearly equal to that of a 支持を得ようと努めるd one, we may be 保証するd that at that place, and in these circumstances, the price of coals is as high as it can be. It seems to be so in some of the inland parts of England, 特に in Oxfordshire, where it is usual, even in the 解雇する／砲火／射撃s of the ありふれた people, to mix coals and 支持を得ようと努めるd together, and where the difference in the expense of those two sorts of 燃料 cannot, therefore, be very 広大な／多数の／重要な.

Coals, in the coal countries, are everywhere much below this highest price. If they were not, they could not 耐える the expense of a distant carriage, either by land or by water. A small 量 only could be sold, and the coal masters and coal proprietors find it more for their 利益／興味 to sell a 広大な／多数の／重要な 量 at a price somewhat above the lowest, than a small 量 at the highest. The most fertile coal-地雷, too, 規制するs the price of coals at all the other 地雷s in its neighbourhood. Both the proprietor and the undertaker of the work find, the one that he can get a greater rent, the other that he can get a greater 利益（をあげる）, by somewhat underselling all their 隣人s. Their 隣人s are soon 強いるd to sell at the same price, though they cannot so 井戸／弁護士席 afford it, and though it always 減らすs, and いつかs takes away altogether both their rent and their 利益（をあげる）. Some 作品 are abandoned altogether; others can afford no rent, and can be wrought only by the proprietor.

The lowest price at which coals can be sold for any かなりの time is, like that of all other 商品／必需品s, the price which is barely 十分な to 取って代わる, together with its ordinary 利益（をあげる）s, the 在庫／株 which must be 雇うd in bringing them to market. At as coal-地雷 for which the landlord can get no rent, but which he must either work himself or let it alone altogether, the price of coals must 一般に be nearly about this price.

Rent, even where coals afford one, has 一般に a smaller 株 in their prices than in that of most other parts of the rude produce of land. The rent of an 広い地所 above ground 一般的に 量s to what is supposed to be a third of the 甚だしい／１２ダース produce; and it is 一般に a rent 確かな and 独立した・無所属 of the 時折の variations in the 刈る. In coal-地雷s a fifth of the 甚だしい／１２ダース produce is a very 広大な／多数の／重要な rent; a tenth the ありふれた rent, and it is seldom a rent 確かな , but depends upon the 時折の variations in the produce. These are so 広大な／多数の／重要な that, in a country where thirty years' 購入（する） is considered as a 穏健な price for the 所有物／資産／財産 of a landed 広い地所, ten years' 購入（する） is regarded as a good price for that of a coal-地雷.

The value of a coal-地雷 to the proprietor frequently depends as much upon its 状況／情勢 as upon its fertility. That of a metallic 地雷 depends more upon its fertility, and いっそう少なく upon its 状況／情勢. The coarse, and still more the precious metals, when separated from the 鉱石, are so 価値のある that they can 一般に 耐える the expense of a very long land, and of the most distant sea carriage. Their market is not 限定するd to the countries in the neighbourhood of the 地雷, but 延長するs to the whole world. The 巡査 of Japan makes an article of 商業 in Europe; the アイロンをかける of Spain in that of Chili and Peru. The silver of Peru finds its way, not only to Europe, but from Europe to 中国.

The price of coals in Westmoreland or Shropshire can have little 影響 on their price at Newcastle; and their price in the Lionnois can have 非，不，無 at all. The 生産／産物s of such distant coal-地雷s can never be brought into 競争 with one another. But the 生産／産物s of the most distant metallic 地雷s frequently may, and in fact 一般的に are. The price, therefore, of the coarse, and still more that of the precious metals, at the most fertile 地雷s in the world, must やむを得ず more or いっそう少なく 影響する／感情 their price at every other in it. The price of 巡査 in Japan must have some 影響（力） upon its price at the 巡査 地雷s in Europe. The price of silver in Peru, or the 量 either of 労働 or of other goods which it will 購入（する） there, must have some 影響（力） on its price, not only at the silver 地雷s of Europe, but at those of 中国. After the 発見 of the 地雷s of Peru, the silver 地雷s of Europe were, the greater part of them, abandoned. The value of was so much 減ずるd that their produce could no longer 支払う／賃金 the expense of working them, or 取って代わる, with a 利益（をあげる）, the food, 着せる／賦与するs, 宿泊するing, and other necessaries which were 消費するd in that 操作／手術. This was the 事例／患者, too, with the 地雷s of Cuba and St. Domingo, and even with the 古代の 地雷s of Peru, after the 発見 of those of Potosi.

The price of every metal at every 地雷, therefore, 存在 規制するd in some 手段 by its price at the most fertile 地雷 in the world that is 現実に wrought, it can at the greater part of 地雷s do very little more than 支払う／賃金 the expense of working, and can seldom afford a very high rent to the landlord. Rent, accordingly, seems at the greater part of 地雷s to have but a small 株 in the price of the coarse, and a still smaller in that of the precious metals. 労働 and 利益（をあげる） （不足などを）補う the greater part of both.

A sixth part of the 甚だしい／１２ダース produce may be reckoned the 普通の／平均（する） rent of the tin 地雷s of Cornwall the most fertile that are known in the world, as we are told by the Reverend Mr. Borlace, 副／悪徳行為-warden of the stannaries. Some, he says, afford more, and some do not afford so much. A sixth part of the 甚だしい／１２ダース produce is the rent, too, of several very fertile lead 地雷s in Scotland.

In the silver 地雷s of Peru, we are told by Frezier and Ulloa, the proprietor frequently exacts no other acknowledgment from the undertaker of the 地雷, but that he will grind the 鉱石 at his mill, 支払う／賃金ing him the ordinary multure or price of grinding. Till 1736, indeed, the 税金 of the King of Spain 量d to one-fifth of the 基準 silver, which till then might be considered as the real rent of the greater part of the silver 地雷s of Peru, the richest which have been known in the world. If there had been no 税金 this fifth would 自然に have belonged to the landlord, and many 地雷s might have been wrought which could not then be wrought, because they could not afford this 税金. The 税金 of the Duke of Cornwall upon tin is supposed to 量 to more than five per cent or one-twentieth part of the value, and whatever may be his 割合, it would 自然に, too, belong to the proprietor of the 地雷, if tin was 義務 解放する／自由な. But if you 追加する one-twentieth to one-sixth, you will find that the whole 普通の／平均（する） rent of the tin 地雷s of Cornwall was to the whole 普通の／平均（する） rent of the silver 地雷s of Peru as thirteen to twelve. But the silver 地雷s of Peru are not now able to 支払う／賃金 even this low rent, and the 税金 upon silver was, in 1736, 減ずるd from one-fifth to one-tenth. Even this 税金 upon silver, too, gives more 誘惑 to 密輸するing than the 税金 of one-twentieth upon tin; and 密輸するing must be much easier in the precious than in the bulky 商品／必需品. The 税金 of the King of Spain accordingly is said to be very ill paid, and that of the Duke of Cornwall very 井戸／弁護士席. Rent, therefore, it is probable, makes a greater part of the price of tin at the most fertile tin 地雷s than it does of silver at the most fertile silver 地雷s in the world. After 取って代わるing the 在庫／株 雇うd in working those different 地雷s, together with its ordinary 利益（をあげる）s, the residue which remains to the proprietor is greater, it seems, in the coarse than in the precious metal.

Neither are the 利益（をあげる）s of the undertakers of silver 地雷s 一般的に very 広大な／多数の／重要な in Peru. The same most respectable and 井戸／弁護士席-知らせるd authors 熟知させる us, that when any person 請け負うs to work a new 地雷 in Peru, he is universally looked upon as a man 運命にあるd to 破産 and 廃虚, and is upon that account shunned and 避けるd by everybody. 採掘, it seems, is considered there in the same light as here, as a 宝くじ, in which the prizes do not 補償する the blanks, though the greatness of some tempts many adventurers to throw away their fortunes in such unprosperous 事業／計画（する）s.

As the 君主, however, derives a かなりの part of his 歳入 from the produce of silver 地雷s, the 法律 in Peru gives every possible 激励 to the 発見 and working of new ones. Whoever discovers a new 地雷 is する権利を与えるd to 手段 off two hundred and forty-six feet in length, によれば what he supposes to be the direction of the vein, and half as much in breadth. He becomes proprietor of this 部分 of the 地雷, and can work it without 支払う／賃金ing any acknowledgment to the landlord. The 利益／興味 of the Duke of Cornwall has given occasion to a 規則 nearly of the same 肉親，親類d in that 古代の duchy. In waste and unenclosed lands any person who discovers a tin 地雷 may 示す its 限界s to a 確かな extent, which is called bounding a 地雷. The bounder becomes the real proprietor of the 地雷, and may either work it himself, or give it in 賃貸し（する） to another, without the 同意 of the owner of the land, to whom, however, a very small acknowledgment must be paid upon working it. In both 規則s the sacred 権利s of 私的な 所有物／資産／財産 are sacrificed to the supposed 利益／興味s of public 歳入.

The same 激励 is given in Peru to the 発見 and working of new gold 地雷s; and in gold the king's 税金 量s only to a twentieth part of the 基準 metal. It was once a fifth, and afterwards a tenth, as in silver; but it was 設立する that the work could not 耐える even the lowest of these two 税金s. If it is rare, however, say the same authors, Frezier and Ulloa, to find a person who has made his fortune by a silver, it is still much rarer to find one who has done so by a gold 地雷. This twentieth part seems to be the whole rent which is paid by the greater part of the gold 地雷s in Chili and Peru. Gold, too, is much more liable to be 密輸するd than even silver; not only on account of the superior value of the metal in 割合 to its 本体，大部分／ばら積みの, but on account of the peculiar way in which nature produces it. Silver is very seldom 設立する virgin, but, like most other metals, is 一般に mineralized with some other 団体／死体, from which it is impossible to separate it in such 量s as will 支払う／賃金 for the expense, but by a very laborious and tedious 操作／手術, which cannot 井戸／弁護士席 be carried on but in workhouses 築くd for the 目的, and therefore exposed to the 査察 of the king's officers. Gold, on the contrary, is almost always 設立する virgin. It is いつかs 設立する in pieces of some 本体，大部分／ばら積みの; and even when mixed in small and almost insensible 粒子s with sand, earth, and other extraneous 団体／死体s, it can be separated from them by a very short and simple 操作／手術, which can be carried on in any 私的な house by anybody who is 所有するd of a small 量 of 水銀柱，温度計. If the king's 税金, therefore, is but ill paid upon silver, it is likely to be much worse paid upon gold; and rent, must make a much smaller part of the price of gold than even of that of silver.

The lowest price at which the precious metals can be sold, or the smallest 量 of other goods for which they can be 交流d during any かなりの time, is 規制するd by the same 原則s which 直す／買収する，八百長をする the lowest ordinary price of all other goods. The 在庫／株 which must 一般的に be 雇うd, the food, the 着せる／賦与するs, and 宿泊するing which must 一般的に be 消費するd in bringing them from the 地雷 to the market, 決定する it. It must at least be 十分な to 取って代わる that 在庫／株, with the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s.

Their highest price, however, seems not to be やむを得ず 決定するd by anything but the actual scarcity or plenty of those metals themselves. It is not 決定するd by that of any other 商品／必需品, in the same manner as the price of coals is by that of 支持を得ようと努めるd, beyond which no scarcity can ever raise it. 増加する the scarcity of gold to a 確かな degree, and the smallest bit of it may become more precious than a diamond, and 交流 for a greater 量 of other goods.

The 需要・要求する for those metals arises partly from their 公共事業（料金）／有用性 and partly from their beauty. If you except アイロンをかける, they are more useful than, perhaps, any other metal. As they are いっそう少なく liable to rust and impurity, they can more easily be kept clean, and the utensils either of the （米）棚上げする／（英）提議する or the kitchen are often upon that account more agreeable when made of them. A silver boiler is more cleanly than a lead, 巡査, or tin one; and the same 質 would （判決などを）下す a gold boiler still better than a silver one. Their 主要な／長／主犯 長所, however, arises from their beauty, which （判決などを）下すs them peculiarly fit for the ornaments of dress and furniture. No paint or dye can give so splendid a colour as gilding. The 長所 of their beauty is 大いに 高めるd by their scarcity. With the greater part of rich people, the 長，指導者 enjoyment of riches consists in the parade of riches, which in their 注目する，もくろむ is never so 完全にする as when they appear to 所有する those 決定的な 示すs of opulence which nobody can 所有する but themselves. In their 注目する，もくろむs the 長所 of an 反対する which is in any degree either useful or beautiful is 大いに 高めるd by its scarcity, or by the 広大な／多数の／重要な 労働 which it 要求するs to collect any かなりの 量 of it, a 労働 which nobody can afford to 支払う／賃金 but themselves. Such 反対するs they are willing to 購入（する） at a higher price than things much more beautiful and useful, but more ありふれた. These 質s of 公共事業（料金）／有用性, beauty, and scarcity, are the 初めの 創立／基礎 of the high price of those metals, or of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 量 of other goods for which they can everywhere be 交流d. This value was antecedent to and 独立した・無所属 of their 存在 雇うd as coin, and was the 質 which fitted them for that 雇用. That 雇用, however, by occasioning a new 需要・要求する, and by 減らすing the 量 which could be 雇うd in any other way, may have afterwards 与える／捧げるd to keep up or 増加する their value.

The 需要・要求する for the precious 石／投石するs arises altogether from their beauty. They are of no use but as ornaments; and the 長所 of their beauty is 大いに 高めるd by their scarcity, or by the difficulty and expense of getting them from the 地雷. 給料 and 利益（をあげる） accordingly （不足などを）補う, upon most occasions, almost the whole of their high price. Rent comes in but for a very small 株; frequently for no 株; and the most fertile 地雷s only afford any かなりの rent. When Tavernier, a jeweller, visited the diamond 地雷s of Golconda and Visiapour, he was 知らせるd that the 君主 of the country, for whose 利益 they were wrought, had ordered all of them to be shut up, except those which 産する／生じる the largest and finest 石／投石するs. The others, it seems, were to the proprietor not 価値（がある） the working.

As the price both of the precious metals and of the precious 石／投石するs is 規制するd all over the world by their price at the most fertile 地雷 in it, the rent which a 地雷 of either can afford to its proprietor is in 割合, not to its 絶対の, but to what may be called its 親族 fertility, or to its 優越 over other 地雷s of the same 肉親，親類d. If new 地雷s were discovered as much superior to those of Potosi as they were superior to those Europe, the value of silver might be so much degraded as to （判決などを）下す even the 地雷s of Potosi not 価値（がある） the working. Before the 発見 of the Spanish West Indies, the most fertile 地雷s in Europe may have afforded as 広大な／多数の／重要な a rent to their proprietor as the richest 地雷s in Peru do at 現在の. Though the 量 of silver was much いっそう少なく, it might have 交流d for an equal 量 of other goods, and the proprietor's 株 might have enabled him to 購入（する） or 命令（する） an equal 量 either of 労働 or of 商品／必需品s. The value both of the produce and of the rent, the real 歳入 which they afforded both to the public and to the proprietor, might have been the same.

The most abundant 地雷s either of the precious metals or of the precious 石／投石するs could 追加する little to the wealth of the world. A produce of which the value is principally derived from its scarcity, is やむを得ず degraded by its 豊富. A service of plate, and the other frivolous ornaments of dress and furniture, could be 購入（する）d for a smaller 量 of 労働, or for a smaller 量 of 商品／必需品s; and in this would consist the 単独の advantage which the world could derive from that 豊富.

It is さもなければ in 広い地所s above ground. The value both of their produce and of their rent is in 割合 to their 絶対の, and not to their 親族 fertility. The land which produces a 確かな 量 of food, 着せる／賦与するs, and 宿泊するing, can always 料金d, 着せる／賦与する, and 宿泊する a 確かな number of people; and whatever may be the 割合 of the landlord, it will always give him a proportionable 命令（する） of the 労働 of those people, and of the 商品／必需品s with which that 労働 can 供給（する） him. The value of the most barren lands is not 減らすd by the neighbourhood of the most fertile. On the contrary, it is 一般に 増加するd by it. The 広大な／多数の／重要な number of people 持続するd by the fertile lands afford a market to many parts of the produce of the barren, which they could never have 設立する の中で those whom their own produce could 持続する.

Whatever 増加するs the fertility of land in producing food 増加するs not only the value of the lands upon which the 改良 is bestowed, but 与える／捧げるs likewise to 増加する that of many other lands by creating a new 需要・要求する for their produce. That 豊富 of food, of which, in consequence of the 改良 of land, many people have the 処分 beyond what they themselves can 消費する, is the 広大な／多数の／重要な 原因（となる） of the 需要・要求する both for the precious metals and the precious 石／投石する, 同様に as for every other conveniency and ornament of dress, 宿泊するing, 世帯 furniture, and equipage. Food not only 構成するs the 主要な／長／主犯 part of the riches of the world, but it is the 豊富 of food which gives the 主要な／長／主犯 part of their value to many other sorts of riches. The poor inhabitants of Cuba and St. Domingo, when they were first discovered by the Spaniards, used to wear little bits of gold as ornaments in their hair and other parts of their dress. They seemed to value them as we would do any little pebbles of somewhat more than ordinary beauty, and to consider them as just 価値（がある） the 選ぶing up, but not 価値（がある） the 辞退するing to anybody who asked them. They gave them to their new guests at the first request, without seeming to think that they had made them any very 価値のある 現在の. They were astonished to 観察する the 激怒（する） of the Spaniards to 得る them; and had no notion that there could anywhere be a country in which many people had the 処分 of so 広大な／多数の／重要な a superfluity of food, so scanty always の中で themselves, that for a very small 量 of those glittering baubles they would willingly give as much as might 持続する a whole family for many years. Could they have been made to understand this, the passion of the Spaniards would not have surprised them.

Part 3: Of the Variations in the 割合 between the 各々の Values
of that Sort of Produce which always affords Rent, and of that
which いつかs does and いつかs does not afford Rent

The value of a 解放する／自由な-石／投石する quarry, for example, will やむを得ず 増加する with the 増加するing 改良 and 全住民 of the country 一連の会議、交渉／完成する about it, 特に if it should be the only one in the neighbourhood. But the value of a silver 地雷, even though there should not be another within a thousand miles of it, will not やむを得ず 増加する with the 改良 of the country in which it is 据えるd. The market for the produce of a freestone quarry can seldom 延長する more than a few miles 一連の会議、交渉／完成する about it, and the 需要・要求する must 一般に be in 割合 to the 改良 and 全住民 of that small 地区. But the market for the produce of a silver 地雷 may 延長する over the whole known world. Unless the world in general, therefore, be 前進するing in 改良 and 全住民, the 需要・要求する for silver might not be at all 増加するd by the 改良 even of a large country in the neighbourhood of the 地雷. Even though the world in general were 改善するing, yet if, in the course of its 改良, new 地雷s should be discovered, much more fertile than any which had been known before, though the 需要・要求する for silver would やむを得ず 増加する, yet the 供給（する） might 増加する in so much a greater 割合 that the real price of that metal might 徐々に 落ちる; that is, any given 量, a 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる of it, for example, might 徐々に 購入（する） or 命令（する） a smaller and a smaller 量 of 労働, or 交流 for a smaller and a smaller 量 of corn, the 主要な／長／主犯 part of the subsistence of the labourer.

The 広大な／多数の／重要な market for silver is the 商業の and civilised part of the world.

If by the general 進歩 of 改良 the 需要・要求する of this market should 増加する, while at the same time the 供給（する） did not 増加する in the same 割合, the value of silver would 徐々に rise in 割合 to that of corn. Any given 量 of silver would 交流 for a greater and a greater 量 of corn; or, in other words, the 普通の／平均（する） money price of corn would 徐々に become cheaper and cheaper.

If, on the contrary, the 供給（する） by some 事故 should 増加する for many years together in a greater 割合 than the 需要・要求する, that metal would 徐々に become cheaper and cheaper; or, in other words, the 普通の／平均（する） money price of corn would, in spite of all 改良s, 徐々に become dearer and dearer.

But if, on the other 手渡す, the 供給（する） of the metal should 増加する nearly in the same 割合 as the 需要・要求する, it would continue to 購入（する） or 交流 for nearly the same 量 of corn, and the 普通の／平均（する） money price of corn would, in spite of all 改良s, continue very nearly the same.

These three seem to exhaust all the possible combinations of events which can happen in the 進歩 of 改良; and during the course of the four centuries 先行する the 現在の, if we may 裁判官 by what has happened both in フラン and 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, each of those three different combinations seem to have taken place in the European market, and nearly in the same order, too, in which I have here 始める，決める them 負かす／撃墜する.

In 1350, 存在 the 25th of Edward III, was 制定するd what is called The 法令 of Labourers. In the preamble it complains much of the insolence of servants, who endeavoured to raise their 給料 upon their masters. It therefore 任命するs that all servants and labourers should for the 未来 be contented with the same 給料 and liveries (liveries in those times 示す not only 着せる／賦与するs but 準備／条項s) which they had been accustomed to receive in the 20th year of the king, and the four 先行する years; that upon this account their livery wheat should nowhere be 概算の higher than tenpence a bushel, and that it should always be in the 選択 of the master to 配達する them either the wheat or the money. Tenpence a bushel, therefore, had, in the 25th of Edward III, been reckoned a very 穏健な price of wheat, since it 要求するd a particular 法令 to 強いる servants to 受託する of it in 交流 for their usual livery of 準備／条項s; and it had been reckoned a reasonable price ten years before that, or in the 16th year of the king, the 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 to which the 法令 言及するs. But in the 16th year of Edward III, tenpence 含む／封じ込めるd about half an ounce of silver, Tower 負わせる, and was nearly equal to half-a-栄冠を与える of our 現在の money. Four ounces of silver, Tower 負わせる, therefore, equal to six shillings and eightpence of the money of those times, and to 近づく twenty shillings of that of the 現在の, must have been reckoned a 穏健な price for the ４半期/4分の1 of eight bushels.

This 法令 is surely a better 証拠 of what was reckoned in those times a 穏健な price of 穀物 than the prices of some particular years which have 一般に been 記録，記録的な／記録するd by historians and other writers on account of their 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の dearness or cheapness, and from which, therefore, it is difficult to form any judgment 関心ing what may have been the ordinary price. There are, besides, other 推論する／理由s for believing that in the beginning of the fourteenth century, and for some time before, the ありふれた price of wheat was not いっそう少なく than four ounces of silver the ４半期/4分の1, and that of other 穀物 in 割合.

In 1309, Ralph de Born, 事前の of St. Augustine's, Canterbury, gave a feast upon his 取り付け・設備-day, of which William Thorn has 保存するd not only the 法案 of fare but the prices of many particulars. In that feast were 消費するd, first, fifty-three ４半期/4分の1s of wheat, which cost nineteen 続けざまに猛撃するs, or seven shillings and twopence a ４半期/4分の1, equal to about one-and-twenty shillings and sixpence of our 現在の money; secondly, fifty-eight ４半期/4分の1s of malt, which cost seventeen 続けざまに猛撃するs ten shillings, or six shillings a ４半期/4分の1, equal to about eighteen shillings of our 現在の money; thirdly, twenty ４半期/4分の1s of oats, which cost four 続けざまに猛撃するs, or four shillings a ４半期/4分の1, equal to about twelve shillings of our 現在の money. The prices of malt and oats seem here to be higher than their ordinary 割合 to the price of wheat.

These prices are not 記録，記録的な／記録するd on account of their 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の dearness or cheapness, but are について言及するd accidentally as the prices 現実に paid for large 量s of 穀物 消費するd at a feast which was famous for its magnificence.

In 1262, 存在 the 51st of Henry M, was 生き返らせるd an 古代の 法令 called The Assize of Bread and Ale, which the king says in the preamble had been made in the times of his progenitors, いつか kings of England. It is probably, therefore, as old at least as the time of his grandfather Henry H, and may have been as old as the Conquest. It 規制するs the price of bread （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the prices of wheat may happen to be, from one shilling to twenty shillings the ４半期/4分の1 of the money of those times. But 法令s of this 肉親，親類d are 一般に 推定するd to 供給する with equal care for all deviations from the middle price, for those below it 同様に as for those above it. Ten shillings, therefore, 含む／封じ込めるing six ounces of silver, Tower 負わせる, and equal to about thirty shillings of our 現在の money, must, upon this supposition, have been reckoned the middle price of the ４半期/4分の1 of wheat when this 法令 was first 制定するd, and must have continued to be so in the 51st of Henry III. We cannot therefore be very wrong in supposing that the middle price was not いっそう少なく than one-third of the highest price at which this 法令 規制するs the price of bread, or than six shillings and eightpence of the money of those times, 含む／封じ込めるing four ounces of silver, Tower 負わせる.

From these different facts, therefore, we seem to have some 推論する／理由 to 結論する that, about the middle of the fourteenth century, and for a かなりの time before, the 普通の／平均（する） or ordinary price of the ４半期/4分の1 of wheat was not supposed to be いっそう少なく than four ounces of silver, Tower 負わせる.

From about the middle of the fourteenth to the beginning of the sixteenth century, what was reckoned the reasonable and 穏健な, that is the ordinary or 普通の／平均（する） price of wheat, seems to have sunk 徐々に to about one-half of this price; so as at last to have fallen to about two ounces of silver, Tower 負わせる, equal to about ten shillings of our 現在の money. It continued to be 概算の at this price till about 1570.

In the 世帯 調書をとる／予約する of Henry, the fifth Earl of Northumberland, drawn up in 1512, there are two different estimations of wheat. In one of them it is 計算するd at six shillings and eightpence the ４半期/4分の1, in the other at five shillings and eightpence only. In 1512, six shillings and eightpence 含む／封じ込めるd only two ounces of silver, Tower 負わせる, and were equal to about ten shillings of our 現在の money.

From the 25th of Edward III to the beginning of the 統治する of Elizabeth, during the space of more than two hundred years, six shillings and eightpence, it appears from several different 法令s, had continued to be considered as what is called the 穏健な and reasonable, that is the ordinary or 普通の／平均（する） price of wheat. The 量 of silver, however, 含む／封じ込めるd in that 名目上の sum was, during the course of this period, continually 減らすing, in consequence of some alterations which were made in the coin. But the 増加する of the value of silver had, it seems, so far 補償するd the diminution of the 量 of it 含む／封じ込めるd in the same 名目上の sum that the 立法機関 did not think it 価値（がある） while to …に出席する to this circumstance.

Thus in 1436 it was 制定するd that wheat might be 輸出（する）d without a licence when the price was so low as six shillings and eightpence; and in 1463 it was 制定するd that no wheat should be 輸入するd if the price was not above six shillings and eightpence the ４半期/4分の1. The 立法機関 had imagined that when the price was so low there could be no inconveniency in exportation, but that when it rose higher it became 慎重な to 許す 輸入. Six shillings and eightpence, therefore, 含む／封じ込めるing about the same 量 of silver as thirteen shillings and fourpence of our 現在の money (one third part いっそう少なく than the same 名目上の sum 含む／封じ込めるd in the time of Edward III), had in those times been considered as what is called the 穏健な and reasonable price of wheat.

In 1554, by the 1st and 2nd of Philip and Mary; and in 1558, by the 1st of Elizabeth, the exportation of wheat was in the same manner 禁じるd, whenever the price of the ４半期/4分の1 should 越える six shillings and eightpence, which did not then 含む／封じ込める two pennyworth more silver than the same 名目上の sum does at 現在の. But it had soon been 設立する that to 抑制する the exportation of wheat till the price was so very low was, in reality, to 禁じる it altogether. In 1562, therefore, by the 5th of Elizabeth, the exportation of wheat was 許すd from 確かな ports whenever the price of the ４半期/4分の1 should not 越える ten shillings, 含む／封じ込めるing nearly the same 量 of silver as the like 名目上の sum does at 現在の. This price had at this time, therefore, been considered as what is called the 穏健な and reasonable price of wheat. It agrees nearly with the estimation of the Northumberland 調書をとる／予約する in 1512.

That in フラン the 普通の／平均（する） price of 穀物 was, in the same manner, much lower in the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century than in the two centuries 先行する has been 観察するd both by Mr. Dupre de St. Maur, and by the elegant author of the Essay on the police of 穀物. Its price, during the same period, had probably sunk in the same manner through the greater part of Europe.

This rise in the value of silver in 割合 to that of corn, may either have been 借りがあるing altogether to the 増加する of the 需要・要求する for that metal, in consequence of 増加するing 改良 and cultivation, the 供給（する） in the 合間 continuing the same as before; or, the 需要・要求する continuing the same as before, it may have been 借りがあるing altogether to the 漸進的な diminution of the 供給（する）; the greater part of the 地雷s which were then known in the world 存在 much exhausted, and その結果 the expense of working them much 増加するd; or it may have been 借りがあるing partly to the other of those two circumstances. In the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries, the greater part of Europe was approaching に向かって a more settled form of 政府 than it had enjoyed for several ages before. The 増加する of 安全 would 自然に 増加する 産業 and 改良; and the 需要・要求する for the precious metals, 同様に as for every other 高級な and ornament, would 自然に 増加する with the 増加する of riches. A greater 年次の produce would 要求する a greater 量 of coin to 循環させる it; and a greater number of rich people would 要求する a greater 量 of plate and other ornaments of silver. It is natural to suppose, too, that the greater part of the 地雷s which then 供給（する）d the European market with silver might be a good 取引，協定 exhausted, and have become more expensive in the working. They had been wrought many of them from the time of the Romans.

It has been the opinion, however, of the greater part of those who have written upon the price of 商品／必需品s in 古代の times that, from the Conquest, perhaps from the 侵略 of Julius Caesar till the 発見 of the 地雷s of America, the value of silver was continually 減らすing. This opinion they seem to have been led into, partly by the 観察s which they had occasion to make upon the prices both of corn and of some other parts of the rude produce of land; and partly by the popular notion that as the 量 of silver 自然に 増加するs in every country with the 増加する of wealth, so its value 減らすs as its 量 増加するs.

In their 観察s upon the prices of corn, three different circumstances seem frequently to have misled them.

First, in 古代の times almost all rents were paid in 肉親，親類d; in a 確かな 量 of corn, cattle, poultry, etc. It いつかs happened, however, that the landlord would 規定する that he should be at liberty to 需要・要求する of the tenant, either the 年次の 支払い（額） in 肉親，親類d, or a 確かな sum of money instead of it. The price at which the 支払い（額） in 肉親，親類d was in this manner 交流d for a 確かな sum of money is in Scotland called the 転換 price. As the 選択 is always in the landlord to take either the 実体 or the price, it is necessary for the safety of the tenant that the 転換 price should rather be below than above the 普通の／平均（する） market price. In many places, accordingly, it is not much above one-half of this price. Through the greater part of Scotland this custom still continues with regard to poultry, and in some places with regard to cattle. It might probably have continued to take place, too, with regard to corn, had not the 会・原則 of the public fiars put an end to it. These are 年次の valuations, によれば the judgment of an assize, of the 普通の／平均（する） price of all the different sorts of 穀物, and of all the different 質s of each, によれば the actual market price in every different 郡. This 会・原則 （判決などを）下すd it 十分に 安全な for the tenant, and much more convenient for the landlord, to 変える, as they call it, the corn rent, rather at what should happen to be the price of the fiars of each year, than at any 確かな 直す／買収する，八百長をするd price. But the writers who have collected the prices of corn in 古代の times seem frequently to have mistaken what is called in Scotland the 転換 price for the actual market price. Fleetwood 認めるs, upon one occasion, that he had made this mistake. As he wrote his 調書をとる／予約する, however, for a particular 目的, he does not think proper to make this acknowledgment till after transcribing this 転換 price fifteen times. The price is eight shillings the ４半期/4分の1 of wheat. This sum in 1423, the year at which he begins with it, 含む／封じ込めるd the same qua ntity of silver as sixteen shillings of our 現在の money. But in 1562, the year at which he ends with it, it 含む／封じ込めるd no more than the same 名目上の sum does at 現在の.

Secondly, they have been misled by the slovenly manner in which some 古代の 法令s of assize had been いつかs transcribed by lazy copiers; and いつかs perhaps 現実に composed by the 立法機関.

The 古代の 法令s of assize seem to have begun always with 決定するing what せねばならない be the price of bread and ale when the price of wheat and barley were at the lowest, and to have proceeded 徐々に to 決定する what it せねばならない be, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the prices of those two sorts of 穀物 should 徐々に rise above this lowest price. But the transcribers of those 法令s seem frequently to have thought it 十分な to copy the 規則 as far as the three or four first and lowest prices, saving in this manner their own 労働, and 裁判官ing, I suppose, that this was enough to show what 割合 せねばならない be 観察するd in all higher prices.

Thus in the Assize of Bread and Ale, of the 51st of Henry III, the price of bread was 規制するd によれば the different prices of wheat, from one shilling to twenty shillings the ４半期/4分の1, of the money of those times. But in the manuscripts from which all the different 版s of the 法令s, 先行する that of Mr. Ruffhead, were printed, the copiers had never transcribed this 規則 beyond the price of twelve shillings. Several writers, therefore, 存在 misled by this 欠陥のある transcription, very 自然に 結論するd that the middle price, or six shillings the ４半期/4分の1, equal to about eighteen shillings of our 現在の money, was the ordinary or 普通の／平均（する） price of wheat at that time.

In the 法令 of Tumbrel and Pillory, 制定するd nearly about the same time, the price of ale is 規制するd によれば every sixpence rise in the price of barley, from two shillings to four shillings the ４半期/4分の1. That four shillings, however, was not considered as the highest price to which barley might frequently rise in those times, and that these prices were only given as an example of the 割合 which せねばならない be 観察するd in all other prices, whether higher or lower, we may infer from the last words of the 法令: et sic deinceps crescetur vel diminuetur per sex denarios. The 表現 is very slovenly, but the meaning is plain enough: "That the price of ale is in this manner to be 増加するd or 減らすd によれば every sixpence rise or 落ちる in the price of barley." In the composition of this 法令 the 立法機関 itself seems to have been as negligent as the copiers were in the transcription of the others.

In an 古代の manuscript of the Regiam Majestatem, an old Scotch 法律 調書をとる／予約する, there is a 法令 of assize in which the price of bread is 規制するd によれば all the different prices of wheat, from tenpence to three shillings the Scotch boll, equal to about half an English ４半期/4分の1. Three shillings Scotch, at the time when this assize is supposed to have been 制定するd were equal to about nine shillings 英貨の／純銀の of our 現在の money. Mr. Ruddiman seems to 結論する from this, that three shillings was the highest price to which wheat ever rose in those times, and that tenpence, a shilling, or at most two shillings, were the ordinary prices. Upon 協議するing the manuscript, however, it appears evidently that all these prices are only 始める，決める 負かす／撃墜する as examples of the 割合 which せねばならない be 観察するd between the 各々の prices of wheat and bread. The last words of the 法令 are: reliqua judicabis secundum proescripta habendo respectum 広告 pretium bladi. "You shall 裁判官 of the remaining 事例／患者s によれば what is above written, having a 尊敬（する）・点 to the price of corn."

Thirdly, they seem to have been misled, too, by the very low price at which wheat was いつかs sold in very 古代の times; and to have imagined that as its lowest price was then much lower than in later times, its ordinary price must likewise have been much lower. They might have 設立する, however, that in those 古代の times its highest price was fully as much above, as its lowest price was below anything that had even been known in later times. Thus in 1270, Fleetwood gives us two prices of the ４半期/4分の1 of wheat. The one is four 続けざまに猛撃するs sixteen shillings of the money of those times, equal to fourteen 続けざまに猛撃するs eight shillings of that of the 現在の; the other is six 続けざまに猛撃するs eight shillings, equal to nineteen 続けざまに猛撃するs four shillings of our 現在の money. No price can be 設立する in the end of the fifteenth, or beginning of the sixteenth century, which approaches to the extravagance of these. The price of corn, though at all times liable to variation, 変化させるs most in those 騒然とした and disorderly societies, in which the interruption of all 商業 and communication 妨げるs the plenty of one part of the country from relieving the scarcity of another. In the disorderly 明言する／公表する of England under the Plantagenets, who 治める／統治するd it from about the middle of the twelfth till に向かって the end of the fifteenth century, one 地区 might be in plenty, while another at no 広大な／多数の／重要な distance, by having its 刈る destroyed either by some 事故 of the seasons, or by the 急襲 of some 隣人ing baron, might be 苦しむing all the horrors of a 飢饉; and yet if the lands of some 敵意を持った lord were interposed between them, the one might not be able to give the least 援助 to the other. Under the vigorous 行政 of the Tudors, who 治める／統治するd England during the latter part of the fifteenth and through the whole of the sixteenth century, no baron was powerful enough to dare to 乱す the public 安全.

The reader will find at the end of this 一時期／支部 all the prices of wheat which have been collected by Fleetwood from 1202 to 1597, both inclusive, 減ずるd to the money of the 現在の times, and digested によれば the order of time, into seven 分割s of twelve years each. At the end of each 分割, too, he will find the 普通の／平均（する） price of the twelve years of which it consists. In that long period of time, Fleetwood has been able to collect the prices of no more than eighty years, so that four years are wanting to make out the last twelve years. I have 追加するd, therefore, from the accounts of Eton college, the prices of 1598, 1599, 1600, and 1601. It is the only 新規加入 which I have made. The reader will see that from the beginning of the thirteenth till after the middle of the sixteenth century the 普通の／平均（する） price of each twelve years grows 徐々に lower and lower; and that に向かって the end of the sixteenth century it begins to rise again. The prices, indeed, which Fleetwood has been able to collect, seem to have been those 主として which were remarkable for 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の dearness or cheapness; and I do not pretend that any very 確かな 結論 can be drawn from them. So far, however, as they 証明する anything at all, they 確認する the account which I have been endeavouring to give. Fleetwood himself, however, seems, with most other writers, to have believed that during all this period the value of silver, in consequence of its 増加するing 豊富, was continually 減らすing. The prices of corn which he himself has collected certainly do not agree with this opinion. They agree perfectly with that of Mr. Dupre de St. Maur, and with that which I have been endeavouring to explain. Bishop Fleetwood and Mr. Dupre de St. Maur are the two authors who seem to have collected, with the greatest diligence and fidelity, the prices of things in 古代の times. It is somewhat curious that, though their opinions are so very different, their facts, so far as they relate to the price of corn at least, should 同時に起こる／一致する so very ex actly.

It is not, however, so much from the low price of corn as from that of some other parts of the rude produce of land that the most judicious writers have inferred the 広大な／多数の／重要な value of silver in those very 古代の times. Corn, it has been said, 存在 a sort of 製造（する）, was, in those rude ages, much dearer in 割合 than the greater part of other 商品／必需品s; it is meant, I suppose, than the greater part of unmanufactured 商品／必需品s, such as cattle, poultry, game of all 肉親，親類d, etc. That in those times of poverty and 野蛮／未開 these were proportionably much cheaper than corn is undoubtedly true. But this cheapness was not the 影響 of the high value of silver, but of the low value of those 商品／必需品s. It was not because silver would in such times 購入（する） or 代表する a greater 量 of 労働, but because such 商品／必需品s would 購入（する） or 代表する a much smaller 量 than in times of more opulence and 改良. Silver must certainly be cheaper in Spanish America than in Europe; in the country where it is produced than in the country to which it is brought, at the expense of a long carriage both by land and by sea, of a freight and an 保険. One-and-twenty pence halfpenny 英貨の／純銀の, however, we are told by Ulloa, was, not many years ago, at Buenos Ayres, the price of an ox chosen from a herd of three or four hundred. Sixteen shillings 英貨の／純銀の, we are told by Mr. Byron was the price of a good horse in the 資本／首都 of Chili. In a country 自然に fertile, but of which the far greater part is altogether uncultivated, cattle, poultry, game of all 肉親，親類d, etc., as they can be acquired with a very small 量 of 労働, so they will 購入（する） or 命令（する） but a very small 量. The low money price for which they may be sold is no proof that the real value of silver is there very high, but that the real value of those 商品／必需品s is very low.

労働, it must always be remembered, and not any particular 商品／必需品 or 始める，決める of 商品／必需品s, is the real 手段 of the value both of silver and of all other 商品／必需品s.

But in countries almost waste, or but thinly 住むd, cattle, poultry, game of all 肉親，親類d, etc., as they are the spontaneous 生産／産物s of nature, so she frequently produces them in much greater 量s than the 消費 of the inhabitants 要求するs. In such a 明言する／公表する of things the 供給（する） 一般的に 越えるs the 需要・要求する. In different 明言する／公表するs of society, in different 行う／開催する／段階s of 改良, therefore, such 商品／必需品s will 代表する, or be 同等（の） to, very different 量s of 労働.

In every 明言する／公表する of society, in every 行う／開催する／段階 of 改良, corn is the 生産／産物 of human 産業. But the 普通の／平均（する） produce of every sort of 産業 is always ふさわしい, more or いっそう少なく 正確に／まさに, to the 普通の／平均（する） 消費; the 普通の／平均（する） 供給（する） to the 普通の／平均（する） 需要・要求する. In every different 行う／開催する／段階 of 改良, besides, the raising of equal 量s of corn in the same 国／地域 and 気候 will, at an 普通の／平均（する）, 要求する nearly equal 量s of 労働; or what comes to the same thing, the price of nearly equal 量s; the continual 増加する of the 生産力のある 力／強力にするs of 労働 in an 改善するing 明言する／公表する of cultivation 存在 more or いっそう少なく counterbalanced by the continually 増加するing price of cattle, the 主要な／長／主犯 器具s of 農業. Upon all these accounts, therefore, we may 残り／休憩（する） 保証するd that equal 量s of corn will, in every 明言する／公表する of society, in every 行う／開催する／段階 of 改良, more nearly 代表する, or be 同等（の） to, equal 量s of 労働 than equal 量s of any other part of the rude produce of land. Corn, accordingly, it has already been 観察するd, is, in all the different 行う／開催する／段階s of wealth and 改良, a more 正確な 手段 of value than any other 商品／必需品 or 始める，決める of 商品／必需品s. In all those different 行う／開催する／段階s, therefore, we can 裁判官 better of the real value of silver by comparing it with corn than by comparing it with any other 商品／必需品 or 始める，決める of 商品／必需品s.

Corn, besides, or whatever else is the ありふれた and favourite vegetable food of the people, 構成するs, in every civilised country, the 主要な／長／主犯 part of the subsistence of the labourer. In consequence of the 拡張 of 農業, the land of every country produces a much greater 量 of vegetable than of animal food, and the labourer everywhere lives 主として upon the wholesome food that is cheapest and most abundant. Butcher's meat, except in the most 栄えるing countries, or where 労働 is most 高度に rewarded, makes but an insignificant part of his subsistence; poultry makes a still smaller part of it, and game no part of it. In フラン, and even in Scotland, where 労働 is somewhat better rewarded than in フラン, the 労働ing poor seldom eat butcher's meat, except upon holidays, and other 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の occasions. The money price of 労働, therefore, depends much more upon the 普通の／平均（する） money price of corn, the subsistence of the labourer, than upon that of butcher's meat, or of any other part of the rude produce of land. The real value of gold and silver, therefore, the real 量 of 労働 which they can 購入（する） or 命令（する）, depends much more upon the 量 of corn which they can 購入（する） or 命令（する） than upon that of butcher's meat, or any other part of the rude produce of land.

Such slight 観察s, however, upon the prices either of corn or of other 商品／必需品s, would not probably have misled so many intelligent authors had they not been 影響（力）d, at the same time, by the popular notion, that as the 量 of silver 自然に 増加するs in every country with the 増加する of so its value 減らすs as its 量 増加するs. This notion, however, seems to be altogether groundless.

The 量 of the precious metals may 増加する in any country from two different 原因（となる）s; either, first, from the 増加するd 豊富 of the 地雷s which 供給（する） it; or, secondly, from the 増加するd wealth of the people, from the 増加するd produce of their 年次の 労働. The first of these 原因（となる）s is no 疑問 やむを得ず connected with the diminution of the value of the precious metals, but the second is not.

When more abundant 地雷s are discovered, a greater 量 of the precious metals is brought to market, and the 量 of the necessaries and conveniencies of life for which they must be 交流d 存在 the same as before, equal 量s of the metals must be 交流d for smaller 量s of 商品／必需品s. So far, therefore, as the 増加する of the 量 of the precious metals in any country arises from the 増加するd 豊富 of the 地雷s, it is やむを得ず connected with some diminution of their value.

When, on the contrary, the wealth of any country 増加するs, when the 年次の produce of its 労働 becomes 徐々に greater and greater, a greater 量 of coin becomes necessary ーするために 循環させる a greater 量 of 商品／必需品s; and the people, as they can afford it, as they have more 商品／必需品s to give for it, will 自然に 購入（する） a greater and a greater 量 of plate. The 量 of their coin will 増加する from necessity; the 量 of their plate from vanity and ostentation, or from the same 推論する／理由 that the 量 of 罰金 statues, pictures, and of every other 高級な and curiosity, is likely to 増加する の中で them. But as statuaries and painters are not likely to be worse rewarded in times of wealth and 繁栄 than in times of poverty and 不景気, so gold and silver are not likely to be worse paid for.

The price of gold and silver, when the 偶発の 発見 of more abundant 地雷s does not keep it 負かす／撃墜する, as it 自然に rises with the wealth of every country, so, whatever be the 明言する／公表する of the 地雷s, it is at all times 自然に higher in a rich than in a poor country. Gold and silver, like all other 商品／必需品s, 自然に 捜し出す the market where the best price is given for them, and the best price is 一般的に given for every thing in the country which can best afford it. 労働, it must be remembered, is the ultimate price which is paid for everything, and in countries where 労働 is 平等に 井戸／弁護士席 regarded, the money price of 労働 will be in 割合 to that of the subsistence of the labourer. But gold and silver will 自然に 交流 for a greater 量 of subsistence in a rich than in a poor country, in a country which abounds with subsistence than in one which is but indifferently 供給（する）d with it. If the two countries are at a 広大な／多数の／重要な distance, the difference may be very 広大な／多数の／重要な; because though the metals 自然に 飛行機で行く from the worse to the better market, yet it may be difficult to 輸送（する） them in such 量s as to bring their price nearly to a level in both. If the countries are 近づく, the difference will be smaller, and may いつかs be 不十分な perceptible; because in this 事例／患者 the transportation will be 平易な. 中国 is a much richer country than any part of Europe, and the difference between the price of subsistence in 中国 and in Europe is very 広大な／多数の／重要な. Rice in 中国 is much cheaper than wheat is anywhere in Europe. England is a much richer country than Scotland; but the difference between the money-price of corn in those two countries is much smaller, and is but just perceptible. In 割合 to the 量 or 手段, Scotch corn 一般に appears to be a good 取引，協定 cheaper than English; but in 割合 to its 質, it is certainly somewhat dearer. Scotland receives almost every year very large 供給（する）s from England, and every 商品／必需品 must 一般的に be somewhat dearer in the country to w hich it is brought than in that from which it comes. English corn, therefore, must be dearer in Scotland than in England, and yet in 割合 to its 質, or to the 量 and goodness of the flour or meal which can be made from it, it cannot 一般的に be sold higher there than the Scotch corn which comes to market in 競争 with it.

The difference between the money price of 労働 in 中国 and in Europe is still greater than that between the money price of subsistence; because the real recompense of 労働 is higher in Europe than in 中国, the greater part of Europe 存在 in an 改善するing 明言する／公表する, while 中国 seems to be standing still. The money price of 労働 is lower in Scotland than in England because the real recompense of 労働 is much lower; Scotland, though 前進するing to greater wealth, 前進するing much more slowly than England. The frequency of 移住 from Scotland, and the rarity of it from England, 十分に 証明する that the 需要・要求する for 労働 is very different in the two countries. The 割合 between the real recompense of 労働 in different countries, it must be remembered, is 自然に 規制するd not by their actual wealth or poverty, but by their 前進するing, 静止している, or 拒絶する／低下するing 条件.

Gold and silver, as they are 自然に of the greatest value の中で the richest, so they are 自然に of the least value の中で the poorest nations. の中で savages, the poorest of all nations, they are of 不十分な any value.

In 広大な／多数の／重要な towns corn is always dearer than in remote parts of the country. This, however, is the 影響, not of the real cheapness of silver, but of the real dearness of corn. It does not cost いっそう少なく 労働 to bring silver to the 広大な／多数の／重要な town than to the remote parts of the country; but it costs a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 more to bring corn.

In some very rich and 商業の countries, such as Holland and the 領土 of Genoa, corn is dear for the same 推論する／理由 that it is dear in 広大な／多数の／重要な towns. They do not produce enough to 持続する their inhabitants. They are rich in the 産業 and 技術 of their artificers and 製造業者s; in every sort of 機械／機構 which can 容易にする and abridge 労働; in shipping, and in all the other 器具s and means of carriage and 商業: but they are poor in corn, which, as it must be brought to them from distant countries, must, by an 新規加入 to its price, 支払う／賃金 for the carriage from those countries. It does not cost いっそう少なく 労働 to bring silver to Amsterdam than to Dantzic; but it costs a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 more to bring corn. The real cost of silver must be nearly the same in both places; but that of corn must be very different. 減らす the real opulence either of Holland or of the 領土 of Genoa, while the number of their inhabitants remains the same: 減らす their 力／強力にする of 供給（する）ing themselves from distant countries; and the price of corn, instead of 沈むing with that diminution in the 量 of their silver, which must やむを得ず …を伴って this declension either as its 原因（となる） or as its 影響, will rise to the price of a 飢饉. When we are in want of necessaries we must part with all superfluities, of which the value, as it rises in times of opulence and 繁栄, so it 沈むs in times of poverty and 苦しめる. It is さもなければ with necessaries. Their real price, the 量 of 労働 which they can 購入（する） or 命令（する）, rises in times of poverty and 苦しめる, and 沈むs in times of opulence and 繁栄, which are always times of 広大な／多数の／重要な 豊富; for they could not さもなければ be times of opulence and 繁栄. Corn is a necessary, silver is only a superfluity.

Whatever, therefore, may have been the 増加する in the 量 of the precious metals, which, during the period between the middle of the fourteenth and that of the sixteenth century, arose from the 増加する of wealth and 改良, it could have no 傾向 to 減らす their value either in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain or in any other part of Europe. If those who have collected the prices of things in 古代の times, therefore, had, during this period, no 推論する／理由 to infer the diminution of the value of silver, from any 観察s which they had made upon the prices either of corn or of other 商品／必需品s, they had still いっそう少なく 推論する／理由 to infer it from any supposed 増加する of wealth and 改良.

From about 1570 to about 1640, during a period of about seventy years, the variation in the 割合 between the value of silver and that of corn held a やめる opposite course. Silver sunk in its real value, or would 交流 for a smaller 量 of 労働 than before; and corn rose in its 名目上の price, and instead of 存在 一般的に sold for about two ounces of silver the ４半期/4分の1, or about ten shillings of our 現在の money, （機の）カム to be sold for six and eight ounces of silver the ４半期/4分の1, or about thirty and forty shillings of our 現在の money.

The 発見 of the abundant 地雷s of America seems to have been the 単独の 原因（となる） of this diminution in the value of silver in 割合 to that of corn. It is accounted for accordingly in the same manner by everybody; and there never has been any 論争 either about the fact or about the 原因（となる） of it. The greater part of Europe was, during this period, 前進するing in 産業 and 改良, and the 需要・要求する for silver must その結果 have been 増加するing. But the 増加する of the 供給（する） had, it seems, so far 越えるd that of the 需要・要求する, that the value of that metal sunk かなり. The 発見 of the 地雷s of America, it is to be 観察するd, does not seem to have had any very sensible 影響 upon the prices of things in England till after 1570; though even the 地雷s of Potosi had been discovered more than twenty years before.

From 1595 to 1620, both inclusive, the 普通の／平均（する） price of the ４半期/4分の1 of nine bushels of the best wheat at Windsor market appears, from the accounts of Eton College, to have been L2 1s. 6 3/4d. From which sum, neglecting the fraction, and deducting a ninth, or 4s. 7 1\3d., the price of the ４半期/4分の1 of eight bushels comes out to have been L1 16s. 10 2/3d. And from this sum, neglecting likewise the fraction, and deducting a ninth, or 4s. 1d., for the difference between the price of the best wheat and that of the middle wheat, the price of the middle wheat comes out to have been about L1 12s. 9d., or about six ounces and one-third of an ounce of silver.

From 1621 to 1636, both inclusive, the 普通の／平均（する） price of the same 手段 of the best wheat at the same market appears, from the same accounts, to have been L2 10s.; from which making the like deductions as in the foregoing 事例／患者, the 普通の／平均（する） price of the ４半期/4分の1 of eight bushels of middle wheat comes out to have been L1 19s. 6d., or about seven ounces and two-thirds of an ounce of silver.

From 1637 to 1700, both inclusive, 存在 the sixty-four last years of the last century, the 普通の／平均（する） price of the ４半期/4分の1 of nine bushels of the best wheat at Windsor market appears, from the same accounts, to have been L2 11s. O 1\3d., which is only 1s O 1\3d. dearer than it had been during the sixteen years before. But in the course of these sixty-four years there happened two events which must have produced a much greater scarcity of corn than what the course of the seasons would さもなければ have occasioned, and which, therefore, without supposing any その上の 削減 in the value of silver, will much more than account for this very small enhancement of price.

The first of these events was the civil war, which, by discouraging tillage and interrupting 商業, must have raised the price of corn much above what the course of the seasons would さもなければ have occasioned. It must have had this 影響 more or いっそう少なく at all the different markets in the kingdom, but 特に at those in the neighbourhood of London, which 要求する to be 供給（する）d from the greatest distance. In 1648, accordingly, the price of the best wheat at Windsor market appears, from the same accounts, to have been L4 5s., and in 1649 to have been L4 the ４半期/4分の1 of nine bushels. The 超過 of those two years above L2 10s. (the 普通の／平均（する） price of the sixteen years 先行する 1637) is L3 5s.; which divided の中で the sixty-four last years of the last century will alone very nearly account for that small enhancement of price which seems to have taken place in them. These, however, though the highest, are by no means the only high prices which seem to have been occasioned by the civil wars.

The second event was the bounty upon the exportation of corn 認めるd in 1688. The bounty, it has been thought by many people, by encouraging tillage, may, in a long course of years, have occasioned a greater 豊富, and その結果 a greater cheapness of corn in the home-market than what would さもなければ have taken place there. How far the bounty could produce this 影響 at any time, I shall 診察する hereafter; I shall only 観察する at 現在の that, between 1688 and 1700, it had not time to produce any such 影響. During this short period its only 影響 must have been, by encouraging the exportation of the 黒字／過剰 produce of every year, and その為に 妨げるing the 豊富 of one year from 補償するing the scarcity of another, to raise the price in the home-market. The scarcity which 勝つ／広く一帯に広がるd in England from 1693 to 1699, both inclusive, though no 疑問 principally 借りがあるing to the badness of the seasons, and, therefore, 延長するing through a かなりの part of Europe, must have been somewhat 高めるd by the bounty. In 1699, accordingly, the その上の exportation of corn was 禁じるd for nine months.

There was a third event which occurred in the course of the same period, and which, though it could not occasion any scarcity of corn, nor, perhaps, any augmentation in the real 量 of silver which was usually paid for it, must やむを得ず have occasioned some augmentation in the 名目上の sum. This event was the 広大な／多数の／重要な debasement of the silver coin, by clipping and wearing. This evil had begun in the 統治する of Charles II and had gone on continually 増加するing till 1695; at which time, as we may learn from Mr. Lowndes, the 現在の silver coin was, at an 普通の／平均（する）, 近づく five-and-twenty per cent below its 基準 value. But the 名目上の sum which 構成するs the market price of every 商品／必需品 is やむを得ず 規制するd, not so much by the 量 of silver, which, によれば the 基準, せねばならない be 含む／封じ込めるd in it, as by that which, it is 設立する by experience, 現実に is 含む／封じ込めるd in it. This 名目上の sum, therefore, is やむを得ず higher when the coin is much debased by clipping and wearing than when 近づく to its 基準 value.

In the course of the 現在の century, the silver coin has not at any time been more below its 基準 負わせる than it is at 現在の. But though very much defaced, its value has been kept up by that of the gold coin for which it is 交流d. For though before the late recoinage, the gold coin was a good 取引，協定 defaced too, it was いっそう少なく so than the silver. In 1695, on the contrary, the value of the silver coin was not kept up by the gold coin; a guinea then 一般的に 交流ing for thirty shillings of the worn and clipt silver. Before the late recoinage of the gold, the price of silver bullion was seldom higher than five shillings and sevenpence an ounce, which is but fivepence above the 造幣局 price. But in 1695, the ありふれた price of silver bullion was six shillings and fivepence an ounce, which is fifteenpence above the 造幣局 price. Even before the late recoinage of the gold, therefore, the coin, gold and silver together, when compared with silver bullion, was not supposed to be more than eight per cent below its 基準 value. In 1695, on the contrary, it had been supposed to be 近づく five-and-twenty per cent below that value. But in the beginning of the 現在の century, that is, すぐに after the 広大な／多数の／重要な recoinage in King William's time. the greater part of the 現在の silver coin must have been still nearer to its 基準 負わせる than it is at 現在の. In the course of the 現在の century, too, there has been no 広大な／多数の／重要な public calamity, such as the civil war, which could either discourage tillage, or interrupt the 内部の 商業 of the country. And though the bounty, which has taken place through the greater part of this century, must always raise the price of corn somewhat higher than it さもなければ would be in the actual 明言する／公表する of tillage; yet as, in the course of this century, the bounty has had 十分な time to produce all the good 影響s 一般的に imputed to it, to encourage tillage, and その為に to 増加する the 量 of corn in the home market, it may, upon the 原則s of a system which I shall explain and ex amine hereafter, be supposed to have done something to lower the price of that 商品／必需品 the one way, 同様に as to raise it the other. It is by many people supposed to have done more. In the sixty-four first years of the 現在の century accordingly the 普通の／平均（する） price of the ４半期/4分の1 of nine bushels of the best wheat at Windsor market appears, by the accounts of Eton College, to have been L2 os. 6 1/2d., which is about ten shillings and sixpence, or more than five-and-twenty per cent, cheaper than it had been during the sixty-four last years of the last century; and about 9s. 6d. cheaper than it had been during the sixteen years 先行する 1636, when the 発見 of the abundant 地雷s of America may be supposed to have produced its 十分な 影響; and about one shilling cheaper than it had been in the twenty-six years 先行する 1620, before that 発見 can 井戸／弁護士席 be supposed to have produced its 十分な 影響. によれば this account, the 普通の／平均（する） price of middle wheat, during these sixty-four first years of the 現在の century, comes out to have been about thirty-two shillings the ４半期/4分の1 of eight bushels.

The value of silver, therefore, seems to have risen somewhat in 割合 to that of corn during the course of the 現在の century, and it had probably begun to do so even some time before the end of the last.

In 1687, the price of the ４半期/4分の1 of nine bushels of the best wheat at Windsor market was L1 5s. 2d. the lowest price at which it had ever been from 1595.

In 1688, Mr. Gregory King, a man famous for his knowledge in 事柄s of this 肉親，親類d, 概算の the 普通の／平均（する） price of wheat in years of 穏健な plenty to be to the grower 3s. 6d. the bushel, or eight-and-twenty shillings the ４半期/4分の1. The grower's price I understand to be the same with what is いつかs called the 契約 price, or the price at which a 農業者 契約s for a 確かな number of years to 配達する a 確かな 量 of corn to a 売買業者. As a 契約 of this 肉親，親類d saves the 農業者 the expense and trouble of marketing, the 契約 price is 一般に lower than what is supposed to be the 普通の／平均（する） market price. Mr. King had 裁判官d eight-and-twenty shillings the ４半期/4分の1 to be at that time the ordinary 契約 price in years of 穏健な plenty. Before the scarcity occasioned by the late 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の course of bad seasons, it was, I have been 保証するd, the ordinary 契約 price in all ありふれた years.

In 1688 was 認めるd the 議会の bounty upon the exportation of corn. The country gentlemen, who then composed a still greater 割合 of the 立法機関 than they do at 現在の, had felt that the money price of corn was 落ちるing. The bounty was an expedient to raise it artificially to the high price at which it had frequently been sold in the times of Charles I and III. It was to take place, therefore, till wheat was so high as forty-eight shillings the ４半期/4分の1, that is, twenty shillings, or five-sevenths dearer than Mr. King had in that very year 概算の the grower's price to be in times of 穏健な plenty. If his 計算／見積りs deserve any part of the 評判 which they have 得るd very universally, eight-and-forty shillings the ４半期/4分の1 was a price which, without some such expedient as the bounty, could not at that time be 推定する／予想するd, except in years of 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の scarcity. But the 政府 of King William was not then fully settled. It was in no 条件 to 辞退する anything to the country gentlemen, from whom it was at that very time soliciting the first 設立 of the 年次の land-税金.

The value of silver, therefore, in 割合 to that of corn, had probably risen somewhat before the end of the last century; and it seems to have continued to do so during the course of the greater part of the 現在の; though the necessary 操作／手術 of the bounty must have 妨げるd that rise from 存在 so sensible as it さもなければ would have been in the actual 明言する／公表する of tillage.

In plentiful years the bounty, by occasioning an 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の exportation, やむを得ず raises the price of corn above what it さもなければ would be in those years. To encourage tillage, by keeping up the price of corn even in the most plentiful years, was the avowed end of the 会・原則.

In years of 広大な／多数の／重要な scarcity, indeed, the bounty has 一般に been 一時停止するd. It must, however, have had some 影響 even upon the prices of many of those years. By the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の exportation which it occasions in years of plenty, it must frequently 妨げる the plenty of one year from 補償するing the scarcity of another.

Both in years of plenty and in years of scarcity, therefore, the bounty raises the price of corn above what it 自然に would be in the actual 明言する／公表する of tillage. If, during the sixty-four first years of the 現在の century, therefore, the 普通の／平均（する） price has been lower than during the sixty-four last years of the last century, it must, in the same 明言する／公表する of tillage, have been much more so, had it not been for this 操作／手術 of the bounty.

But without the bounty, it may be said, the 明言する／公表する of tillage would not have been the same. What may have been the 影響s of this 会・原則 upon the 農業 of the country, I shall endeavour to explain hereafter, when I come to 扱う／治療する 特に of bounties. I shall only 観察する at 現在の that this rise in the value of silver, in 割合 to that of corn, has not been peculiar to England. It has been 観察するd to have taken place in フラン, during the same period, and nearly in the same 割合 too, by three very faithful, diligent, and laborious collectors of the prices of corn, Mr. Dupre de St. Maur, Mr. Messance, and the author of the Essay on the police of 穀物. But in フラン, till 1764, the exportation of 穀物 was by 法律 禁じるd; and it is somewhat difficult to suppose that nearly the same diminution of price which took place in one country, notwithstanding this 禁止, should in another be 借りがあるing to the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 激励 given to exportation.

It would be more proper, perhaps, to consider this variation in the 普通の／平均（する） money price of corn as the 影響 rather of some 漸進的な rise in the real value of silver in the European market than of any 落ちる in the real 普通の／平均（する） value of corn. Corn, it has already been 観察するd, is at distant periods of time a more 正確な 手段 of value than either silver, or perhaps any other 商品／必需品. When, after the 発見 of the abundant 地雷s of America, corn rose to three and four times its former money price, this change was universally ascribed, not to any rise in the real value of corn, but to a 落ちる in the real value of silver. If during the sixty-four first years of the 現在の century, therefore, the 普通の／平均（する） money price of corn has fallen somewhat below what it had been during the greater part of the last century, we should in the same manner impute this change, not to any 落ちる in the real value of corn, but to some rise in the real value of silver in the European market.

The high price of corn during these ten or twelve years past, indeed, has occasioned a 疑惑 that the real value of silver still continues to 落ちる in the European market. This high price of corn, however, seems evidently to have been the 影響 of the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の unfavourableness of the seasons, and ought therefore to be regarded, not as a 永久の, but as a transitory and 時折の event. The seasons for these ten or twelve years past have been unfavourable through the greater part of Europe; and the disorders of Poland have very much 増加するd the scarcity in all those countries which, in dear years, used to be 供給（する）d from that market. So long a course of bad seasons, though not a very ありふれた event, is by no means a singular one; and whoever has 問い合わせd much into the history of the prices of corn in former times will be at no loss to recollect several other examples of the same 肉親，親類d. Ten years of 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の scarcity, besides, are not more wonderful than ten years of 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の plenty. The low price of corn from 1741 to 1750, both inclusive, may very 井戸／弁護士席 be 始める，決める in 対立 to its high price during these last eight or ten years. From 1741 to 1750, the 普通の／平均（する） price of the ４半期/4分の1 of nine bushels of the best wheat at Windsor market, it appears from the accounts of Eton College, was only L1 13s. 9 1/2d., which is nearly 6s. 3d. below the 普通の／平均（する） price of the sixty-four first years of the 現在の century. The 普通の／平均（する） price of the ４半期/4分の1 of eight bushels of middle wheat comes out, によれば this account, to have been, during these ten years, only 51 6s. 8d.

Between 1741 and 1750, however, the bounty must have 妨げるd the price of corn from 落ちるing so low in the home market as it 自然に would have done. During these ten years the 量 of all sorts of 穀物 輸出（する）d, it appears from the custom-house 調書をとる／予約するs, 量d to no いっそう少なく than eight millions twenty-nine thousand one hundred and fifty-six ４半期/4分の1s one bushel. The bounty paid for this 量d to L1,514,962 17s. 4 1/2d. In 1749 accordingly, Mr. Pelham, at that time 総理大臣, 観察するd to the House of ありふれたs that for the three years 先行する a very 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の sum had been paid as bounty for the exportation of corn. He had good 推論する／理由 to make this 観察, and in the に引き続いて year he might have had still better. In that 選び出す／独身 year the bounty paid 量d to no いっそう少なく than L324,176 10s. 6d. It is unnecessary to 観察する how much this 軍隊d exportation must have raised the price of corn above what it さもなければ would have been in the home market.

At the end of the accounts 別館d to this 一時期／支部 the reader will find the particular account of those ten years separated from the 残り／休憩（する）. He will find there, too, the particular account of the 先行する ten years, of which the 普通の／平均（する） is likewise below, though not so much below, the general 普通の／平均（する） of the sixty-four first years of the century. The year 1740, however, was a year of 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の scarcity. These twenty years 先行する 1750 may very 井戸／弁護士席 be 始める，決める in 対立 to the twenty 先行する 1770. As the former were a good 取引，協定 below the general 普通の／平均（する） of the century, notwithstanding the 介入 of one or two dear years; so the latter have been a good 取引，協定 above it, notwithstanding the 介入 of one or two cheap ones, of 1759, for example. If the former have not been as much below the general 普通の／平均（する） as the latter have been above it, we ought probably to impute it to the bounty. The change has evidently been too sudden to be ascribed to any change in the value of silver, which is always slow and 漸進的な. The suddenness of the 影響 can be accounted for only by a 原因（となる） which can operate suddenly, the 偶発の variation of the seasons.

The money price of 労働 in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain has, indeed, risen during the course of the 現在の century. This, however, seems to be the 影響, not so much of any diminution in the value of silver in the European market, as of an 増加する in the 需要・要求する for 労働 in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, arising from the 広大な／多数の／重要な, and almost 全世界の／万国共通の 繁栄 of the country. In フラン, a country not altogether so 繁栄する, the money price of 労働 has, since the middle of the last century, been 観察するd to 沈む 徐々に with the 普通の／平均（する） money price of corn. Both in the last century and in the 現在の the day-給料 of ありふれた 労働 are there said to have been pretty uniformly about the twentieth part of the 普通の／平均（する） price of the septier of wheat, a 手段 which 含む／封じ込めるs a little more than four Winchester bushels. In 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain the real recompense of 労働, it has already been shown, the real 量s of the necessaries and conveniencies of life which are given to the labourer, has 増加するd かなり during the course of the 現在の century. The rise in its money price seems to have been the 影響, not of any diminution of the value of silver in the general market of Europe, but of a rise in the real price of 労働 in the particular market of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, 借りがあるing to the peculiarly happy circumstances of the country.

For some time after the first 発見 of America, silver would continue to sell at its former, or not much below its former price. The 利益（をあげる）s of 採掘 would for some time be very 広大な／多数の／重要な, and much above their natural 率. Those who 輸入するd that metal into Europe, however, would soon find that the whole 年次の 輸入 could not be 性質の／したい気がして of at this high price. Silver would 徐々に 交流 for a smaller and a smaller 量 of goods. Its price would 沈む 徐々に lower and lower till it fell to its natural price, or to what was just 十分な to 支払う／賃金, によれば their natural 率s, the 給料 of the 労働, the 利益（をあげる）s of the 在庫／株, and the rent of the land, which must be paid ーするために bring it from the 地雷 to the market. In the greater part of the silver 地雷s of Peru, the 税金 of the King of Spain, 量ing to a tenth of the 甚だしい／１２ダース produce, eats up, it has already been 観察するd, the whole rent of the land. This 税金 was 初めは a half; it soon afterwards fell to a third, then to a fifth, and at last to a tenth, at which 率 it still continues. In the greater part of the silver 地雷s of Peru this, it seems, is all that remains after 取って代わるing the 在庫／株 of the undertaker of the work, together with its ordinary 利益（をあげる）s; and it seems to be universally 定評のある that these 利益（をあげる）s, which were once very high, are now as low as they can 井戸／弁護士席 be, 終始一貫して with carrying on their 作品.

The 税金 of the King of Spain was 減ずるd to a fifth part of the 登録（する）d silver in 1504, one-and-forty years before 1545, the date of the 発見 of the 地雷s of Potosi. In the course of ninety years, or before 1636, these 地雷s, the most fertile in all America, had time 十分な to produce their 十分な 影響, or to 減ずる the value of silver in the European market as low as it could 井戸／弁護士席 落ちる, while it continued to 支払う／賃金 this 税金 to the King of Spain. Ninety years is time 十分な to 減ずる any 商品／必需品, of which there is no monopoly, to its natural price, or to the lowest price at which, while it 支払う／賃金s a particular 税金, it can continue to be sold for any かなりの time together.

The price of silver in the European market might perhaps have fallen still lower, and it might have become necessary either to 減ずる the 税金 upon it, not only to one tenth, as in 1736, but to one twentieth, in the same manner as that upon gold, or to give up working the greater part of the American 地雷s which are now wrought. The 漸進的な 増加する of the 需要・要求する for silver, or the 漸進的な enlargement of the market for the produce of the silver 地雷s of America, is probably the 原因（となる） which has 妨げるd this from happening, and which has not only kept up the value of silver in the European market, but has perhaps even raised it somewhat higher than it was about the middle of the last century.

Since the first 発見 of America, the market for the produce of its silver 地雷s has been growing 徐々に more and more 広範囲にわたる.

First, the market of Europe has become 徐々に more and more 広範囲にわたる. Since the 発見 of America, the greater part of Europe has been much 改善するd. England, Holland, フラン, and Germany; even Sweden, Denmark, and Russia, have all 前進するd かなり both in 農業 and in 製造（する）s. Italy seems not to have gone backwards. The 落ちる of Italy に先行するd the conquest of Peru. Since that time it seems rather to have 回復するd a little. Spain and Portugal, indeed, are supposed to have gone backwards. Portugal, however, is but a very small part of Europe, and the declension of Spain is not, perhaps, so 広大な／多数の／重要な as is 一般的に imagined. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, Spain was a very poor country, even in comparison with フラン, which has been so much 改善するd since that time. It was the 井戸／弁護士席 known 発言／述べる of the Emperor Charles V, who had travelled so frequently through both countries, that everything abounded in フラン, but that everything was wanting in Spain. The 増加するing produce of the 農業 and 製造（する）s of Europe must やむを得ず have 要求するd a 漸進的な 増加する in the 量 of silver coin to 循環させる it; and the 増加するing number of 豊富な individuals must have 要求するd the like 増加する in the 量 of their plate and other ornaments of silver.

Secondly, America is itself a new market for the produce of its own silver 地雷s; and as its 前進するs in 農業, 産業, and 全住民 are much more 早い than those of the most 栄えるing countries in Europe, its 需要・要求する must 増加する much more 速く. The English 植民地s are altogether a new market, which, partly for coin and partly for plate, 要求するs a continually augmenting 供給（する） of silver through a 広大な／多数の／重要な continent where there never was any 需要・要求する before. The greater part, too, of the Spanish and Portuguese 植民地s are altogether new markets. New Granada, the Yucatan, Paraguay, and the Brazils were, before discovered by the Europeans, 住むd by savage nations who had neither arts nor 農業. A かなりの degree of both has now been introduced into all of them. Even Mexico and Peru, though they cannot be considered as altogether new markets, are certainly much more 広範囲にわたる ones than they ever were before. After all the wonderful tales which have been published 関心ing the splendid 明言する／公表する of those countries in 古代の times, whoever reads, with any degree of sober judgment, the history of their first 発見 and conquest, will evidently discern that, in arts, 農業, and 商業, their inhabitants were much more ignorant than the Tartars of the ウクライナ共和国 are at 現在の. Even the Peruvians, the more civilised nation of the two, though they made use of gold and silver as ornaments, had no coined money of any 肉親，親類d. Their whole 商業 was carried on by 物々交換する, and there was accordingly 不十分な any 分割 of 労働 の中で them. Those who cultivated the ground were 強いるd to build their own houses, to make their own 世帯 furniture, their own 着せる／賦与するs, shoes, and 器具s of 農業. The few artificers の中で them are said to have been all 持続するd by the 君主, the nobles, and the priests, and were probably their servants or slaves. All the 古代の arts of Mexico and Peru have never furnished one 選び出す／独身 製造（する） to Europe. The Spanish armies, though they 不十分な eve r 越えるd five hundred men, and frequently did not 量 to half that number, 設立する almost everywhere 広大な／多数の／重要な difficulty in procuring subsistence. The 飢饉s which they are said to have occasioned almost wherever they went, in countries, too, which at the same time are 代表するd as very populous and 井戸／弁護士席 cultivated, 十分に 論証する that the story of this populousness and high cultivation is in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 fabulous. The Spanish 植民地s are under a 政府 in many 尊敬（する）・点s いっそう少なく favourable to 農業, 改良, and 全住民 than that of the English 植民地s. They seem, however, to be 前進するing in all these much more 速く than any country in Europe. In a fertile 国／地域 and happy 気候, the 広大な／多数の／重要な 豊富 and cheapness of land, a circumstance ありふれた to all new 植民地s, is, it seems, so 広大な／多数の／重要な an advantage as to 補償する many defects in civil 政府. Frezier, who visited Peru in 1713, 代表するs Lima as 含む／封じ込めるing between twenty-five and twenty-eight thousand inhabitants. Ulloa, who resided in the same country between 1740 and 1746, 代表するs it as 含む／封じ込めるing more than fifty thousand. The difference in their accounts of the populousness of several other 主要な／長／主犯 towns in Chili and Peru is nearly the same; and as there seems to be no 推論する／理由 to 疑問 of the good （警察などへの）密告，告訴（状） of either, it 示すs an 増加する which is 不十分な inferior to that of the English 植民地s. America, therefore, is a new market for the produce of its own silver 地雷s, of which the 需要・要求する must 増加する much more 速く than that of the most 栄えるing country in Europe.

Thirdly, the East Indies is another market for the produce of the silver 地雷s of America, and a market which, from the time of the first 発見 of those 地雷s, has been continually taking off a greater and a greater 量 of silver. Since that time, the direct 貿易（する） between America and the East Indies, which is carried on by means of the Acapulco ships, has been continually augmenting, and the indirect intercourse by the way of Europe has been augmenting in a still greater 割合. During the sixteenth century, the Portuguese were the only European nation who carried on any 正規の／正選手 貿易（する） to the East Indies. In the last years of that century the Dutch begun to encroach upon this monopoly, and in a few years expelled them from their 主要な／長／主犯 解決／入植地s in India. During the greater part of the last century those two nations divided the most かなりの part of the East India 貿易（する） between them; the 貿易（する） of the Dutch continually augmenting in a still greater 割合 than that of the Portuguese 拒絶する／低下するd. The English and French carried on some 貿易（する） with India in the last century, but it has been 大いに augmented in the course of the 現在の. The East India 貿易（する） of the Swedes and Danes began in the course of the 現在の century. Even the Muscovites now 貿易（する） 定期的に with 中国 by a sort of caravans which go 陸路の through Siberia and Tartary to Pekin. The East India 貿易（する） of all these nations, if we except that of the French, which the last war had 井戸／弁護士席 nigh 絶滅するd, had been almost continually augmenting. The 増加するing 消費 of East India goods in Europe is, it seems, so 広大な／多数の／重要な as to afford a 漸進的な 増加する of 雇用 to them all. Tea, for example, was a 麻薬 very little used in Europe before the middle of the last century. At 現在の the value of the tea 毎年 輸入するd by the English East India Company, for the use of their own countrymen, 量s to more than a million and a half a year; and even this is not enough; a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 more 存在 絶えず 密輸するd into the countr y from the ports of Holland, from Gottenburgh in Sweden, and from the coast of フラン too, as long as the French East India Company was in 繁栄. The 消費 of the porcelain of 中国, of the spiceries of the Moluccas, of the piece goods of Bengal, and of innumerable other articles, has 増加するd very nearly in a like 割合. The tonnage accordingly of all the European shipping 雇うd in the East India 貿易（する）, at any one time during the last century, was not, perhaps, much greater than that of the English East India Company before the late 削減 of their shipping.

But in the East Indies, 特に in 中国 and Indostan, the value of the precious metals, when the Europeans first began to 貿易（する） to those countries, was much higher than in Europe; and it still continues to be so. In rice countries, which 一般に 産する／生じる two, いつかs three 刈るs in the year, each of them more plentiful than any ありふれた 刈る of corn, the 豊富 of food must be much greater than in any corn country of equal extent. Such countries are accordingly much more populous. In them, too, the rich, having a greater superabundance of food to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of beyond what they themselves can 消費する, have the means of 購入（する）ing a much greater 量 of the 労働 of other people. The retinue of a grandee in 中国 or Indostan accordingly is, by all accounts, much more 非常に／多数の and splendid than that of the richest 支配するs in Europe. The same superabundance of food, of which they have the 処分, enables them to give a greater 量 of it for all those singular and rare 生産／産物s which nature furnishes but in very small 量s; such as the precious metals and the precious 石／投石するs, the 広大な／多数の／重要な 反対するs of the 競争 of the rich. Though the 地雷s, therefore, which 供給（する）d the Indian market had been as abundant as those which 供給（する）d the European, such 商品／必需品s would 自然に 交流 for a greater 量 of food in India than in Europe. But the 地雷s which 供給（する）d the Indian market with the precious metals seem to have been a good 取引，協定 いっそう少なく abundant, and those which 供給（する）d it with the precious 石／投石するs a good 取引，協定 more so, than the 地雷s which 供給（する）d the European. The precious metals, therefore, would 自然に 交流 in India for somewhat a greater 量 of the precious 石／投石するs, and for a much greater 量 of food than in Europe. The money price of diamonds, the greatest of all superfluities, would be somewhat lower, and that of food, the first of all necessaries, a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 lower in the one country than in the other. But the real price of 労働, the real 量 of the n ecessaries of life which is given to the labourer, it has already been 観察するd, is lower both in 中国 and Indostan, the two 広大な／多数の／重要な markets of India, than it is through the greater part of Europe. The 給料 of the labourer will there 購入（する） a smaller 量 of food; and as the money price of food is much lower in India than in Europe, the money price of 労働 is there lower upon a 二塁打 account; upon account both of the small 量 of food which it will 購入（する）, and of the low price of that food. But in countries of equal art and 産業, the money price of the greater part of 製造（する）s will be in 割合 to the money price of 労働; and in 製造業の art and 産業, 中国 and Indostan, though inferior, seem not to be much inferior to any part of Europe. The money price of the greater part of 製造（する）s, therefore, will 自然に be much lower in those 広大な／多数の／重要な empires than it is anywhere in Europe. Through the greater part of Europe, too, the expense of land-carriage 増加するs very much both the real and 名目上の price of most 製造（する）s. It costs more 労働, and therefore more money, to bring first the 構成要素s, and afterwards the 完全にする 製造（する） to market. In 中国 and Indostan the extent and variety of inland 航海 save the greater part of this 労働, and その結果 of this money, and その為に 減ずる still lower both the real and the 名目上の price of the greater part of their 製造（する）s. Upon all those accounts the precious metals axe a 商品／必需品 which it always has been, and still continues to be, 極端に advantageous to carry from Europe to India. There is 不十分な any 商品／必需品 which brings a better price there; or which, in 割合 to the 量 of 労働 and 商品／必需品s which it costs in Europe, will 購入（する） or 命令（する） a greater 量 of 労働 and 商品／必需品s in India. It is more advantageous, too, to carry silver thither than gold; because in 中国, and the greater part of the other markets of India, the 割合 between 罰金 silver and 罰金 gold is bu t as ten, or at most as twelve, to one; 反して in Europe it is as fourteen or fifteen to one. In 中国, and the greater part of the other markets of India, ten, or at most twelve, ounces of silver will 購入（する） an ounce of gold; in Europe it 要求するs from fourteen to fifteen ounces. In the 貨物s, therefore, of the greater part of European ships which sail to India, silver has 一般に been one of the most 価値のある articles. It is the most 価値のある article in the Acapulco ships which sail to Manilla. The silver of the new continent seems in this manner to be one of the 主要な／長／主犯 商品／必需品s by which the 商業 between the two extremities of the old one is carried on, and it is by means of it, in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段, that those distant parts of the world are connected with one another.

ーするために 供給（する） so very 広範囲にわたって 延長するd a market, the 量 of silver 毎年 brought from the 地雷s must not only be 十分な to support that continual 増加する both of coin and of plate which is 要求するd in all 栄えるing countries; but to 修理 that continual waste and 消費 of silver which takes place in all countries where that metal is used.

The continual 消費 of the precious metals in coin by wearing, and in plate both by wearing and きれいにする, is very sensible, and in 商品／必需品s of which the use is so very 広範囲にわたって 延長するd, would alone 要求する a very 広大な／多数の／重要な 年次の 供給（する）. The 消費 of those metals in some particular 製造（する）s, though it may not perhaps be greater upon the whole than this 漸進的な 消費, is, however, much more sensible, as it is much more 早い. In the 製造（する）s of Birmingham alone the 量 of gold and silver 毎年 雇うd in gilding and plating, and その為に disqualified from ever afterwards appearing in the 形態／調整 of those metals, is said to 量 to more than fifty thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs 英貨の／純銀の. We may from thence form some notion how 広大な／多数の／重要な must be the 年次の 消費 in all the different parts of the world either in 製造（する）s of the same 肉親，親類d with those of Birmingham, or in laces, embroideries, gold and silver stuffs, the gilding of 調書をとる／予約するs, furniture, etc. A かなりの 量, too, must be 毎年 lost in 輸送（する）ing those metals from one place to another both by sea and by land. In the greater part of the 政府s of Asia, besides, the almost 全世界の／万国共通の custom of 隠すing treasures in the bowels of the earth, of which the knowledge frequently dies with the person who makes the concealment, must occasion the loss of a still greater 量.

The 量 of gold and silver 輸入するd at both Cadiz and Lisbon (含むing not only what comes under 登録（する）, but what may be supposed to be 密輸するd) 量s, によれば the best accounts, to about six millions 英貨の／純銀の a year.

によれば Mr. Meggens the 年次の 輸入 of the precious metals into Spain, at an 普通の／平均（する） of six years, viz., from 1748 to 1753, both inclusive; and into Portugal, at an 普通の／平均（する） of seven years, viz., from 1747 to 1753, both inclusive, 量d in silver to 1,101,107 続けざまに猛撃するs 負わせる; and in gold to 29,940 続けざまに猛撃するs 負わせる. The silver, at sixty-two shillings the 続けざまに猛撃する Troy, 量s to L3,413,431 10s. 英貨の／純銀の. The gold, at forty-four guineas and a half the 続けざまに猛撃する Troy, 量s to L2,333,446 14s. 英貨の／純銀の. Both together 量 to L5,746,878 4s. 英貨の／純銀の. The account of what was 輸入するd under 登録（する） he 保証するs us is exact. He gives us the 詳細（に述べる） of the particular places from which the gold and silver were brought, and of the particular 量 of each metal, which, によれば the 登録（する）, each of them afforded. He makes an allowance, too, for the 量 of each metal which he supposes may have been 密輸するd. The 広大な／多数の／重要な experience of this judicious merchant （判決などを）下すs his opinion of かなりの 負わせる.

によれば the eloquent and, いつかs, 井戸／弁護士席-知らせるd author of the Philosophical and Political History of the 設立 of the Europeans in the two Indies, the 年次の 輸入 of 登録（する）d gold and silver into Spain, at an 普通の／平均（する） of eleven years, viz., from 1754 to 1764, both inclusive, 量d to 13,984,185 3/4 piastres of ten reals. On account of what may have been 密輸するd, however, the whole 年次の 輸入, he supposes, may have 量d to seventeen millions of piastres, which, at 4s. 6d. the piastre, is equal to L3,825,000 英貨の／純銀の. He gives the 詳細（に述べる）, too, of the particular places from which the gold and silver were brought, and of the particular 量s of each metal which, によれば the 登録（する）, each of them afforded. He 知らせるs us, too, that if we were to 裁判官 of the 量 of gold 毎年 輸入するd from the Brazils into Lisbon by the 量 of the 税金 paid to the King of Portugal, which it seems is one-fifth of the 基準 metal, we might value it at eighteen millions of cruzadoes, or forty-five millions of French livres, equal to about two millions 英貨の／純銀の. On account of what may have been 密輸するd, however, we may 安全に, he says, 追加する to the sum an eighth more, or L250,000 英貨の／純銀の, so that the whole will 量 to L2,250,000 英貨の／純銀の. によれば this account, therefore, the whole 年次の 輸入 of the precious metals into both Spain and Portugal 量s to about L6,075,000 英貨の／純銀の.

Several other very 井戸／弁護士席 authenticated, though manuscript, accounts, I have been 保証するd, agree in making this whole 年次の 輸入 量 at an 普通の／平均（する） to about six millions 英貨の／純銀の; いつかs a little more, いつかs a little いっそう少なく.

The 年次の 輸入 of the precious metals into Cadiz and Lisbon, indeed, is not equal to the whole 年次の produce of the 地雷s of America. Some part is sent 毎年 by the Acapulco ships to Manilla; some part is 雇うd in the contraband 貿易（する） which the Spanish 植民地s carry on with those of other European nations; and some part, no 疑問 remains in the country. The 地雷s of America, besides, are by no means the only gold and silver 地雷s in the world. They are, however, by far the most abundant. The produce of all the other 地雷s which are known is insignificant, it is 定評のある, in comparison with theirs; and the far greater part of their produce, it is likewise 定評のある, is 毎年 輸入するd into Cadiz and Lisbon. But the 消費 of Birmingham alone, at the 率 of fifty thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs a year, is equal to the hundred-and-twentieth part of this 年次の 輸入 at the 率 of six millions a year. The whole 年次の 消費 of gold and silver, therefore, in all the different countries of the world where those metals are used, may perhaps be nearly equal to the whole 年次の produce. The 残りの人，物 may be no more than 十分な to 供給（する） the 増加するing 需要・要求する of all 栄えるing countries. It may even have fallen so far short of time 需要・要求する as somewhat to raise the price of those metals in the European market.

The 量 of 厚かましさ／高級将校連 and アイロンをかける 毎年 brought from the 地雷 to the market is out of all 割合 greater than that of gold and silver. We do not, however, upon this account, imagine that those coarse metals are likely to multiply beyond the 需要・要求する, or to become 徐々に cheaper and cheaper. Why should we imagine that the precious metals are likely to do so? The coarse metals, indeed, though harder, are put to much harder uses, and, as they are of いっそう少なく value, いっそう少なく care is 雇うd in their 保護. The precious metals, however, are not やむを得ず immortal any more than they, but are liable, too, to be lost, wasted, and 消費するd in a 広大な／多数の／重要な variety of ways.

The price of all metals, though liable to slow and 漸進的な variations, 変化させるs いっそう少なく from year to year than that of almost any other part of the rude produce of land; and the price of the precious metals is even いっそう少なく liable to sudden variations than that of the coarse ones. The durableness of metals is the 創立／基礎 of this 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の steadiness of price. The corn which was brought to market last year will be all or almost all 消費するd long before the end of this year. But some part of the アイロンをかける which was brought from the 地雷 two or three hundred years ago may be still in use, and perhaps some part of the gold which was brought from it two or three thousand years ago. The different 集まりs of corn which in different years must 供給（する） the 消費 of the world will always be nearly in 割合 to the 各々の produce of those different years. But the 割合 between the different 集まりs of アイロンをかける which may be in use in two different years will be very little 影響する／感情d by any 偶発の difference in the produce of the アイロンをかける 地雷s of those two years; and the 割合 between the 集まりs of gold will be still いっそう少なく 影響する／感情d by any such difference in the produce of the gold 地雷s. Though the produce of the greater part of metallic 地雷s, therefore, 変化させるs, perhaps, still more from year to year than that of the greater part of corn fields, those variations have not the same 影響 upon the price of the one 種類 of 商品／必需品s as upon that of the other.

The 広大な／多数の／重要な 量s of silver carried 毎年 from Europe to India have, in some of the English 解決／入植地s, 徐々に 減ずるd the value of that metal in 割合 to gold. In the 造幣局 of Calcutta an ounce of 罰金 gold is supposed to be 価値（がある） fifteen ounces of 罰金 silver, in the same manner as in Europe. It is in the 造幣局 perhaps 率d too high for the value which it 耐えるs in the market of Bengal. In 中国, the 割合 of gold to silver still continues as one to ten, or one to twelve. In Japan it is said to be as one to eight.

The 割合 between the 量s of gold and silver 毎年 輸入するd into Europe, によれば Mr. Meggens's account, is as one to twenty-two nearly; that is, for one ounce of gold there are 輸入するd a little more than twenty-two ounces of silver. The 広大な／多数の／重要な 量 of silver sent 毎年 to the East Indies 減ずるs, he supposes, the 量s of those metals which remain in Europe to the 割合 of one to fourteen or fifteen, the 割合 of their values. The 割合 between their values, he seems to think, must やむを得ず be the same as that between their 量s, and would therefore be as one to twenty-two, were it not for this greater exportation of silver.

But the ordinary 割合 between the 各々の values of two 商品／必需品s is not やむを得ず the same as that between the 量s of them which are 一般的に in the market. The price of an ox, reckoned at ten guineas, is about threescore times the price of a lamb, reckoned at 3s. 6d. It would be absurd, however, to infer from thence that there are 一般的に in the market threescore lambs for one ox: and it would be just as absurd to infer, because an ounce of gold will 一般的に 購入（する） from fourteen to fifteen ounces of silver, that there are 一般的に in the market only fourteen or fifteen ounces of silver for one ounce of gold.

The 量 of silver 一般的に in the market, it is probable is much greater in 割合 to that of gold than the value of a 確かな 量 of gold is to that of an equal 量 of silver. The whole 量 of a cheap 商品／必需品 brought to market is 一般的に not only greater, but of greater value, than the whole 量 of a dear one. The whole 量 of bread 毎年 brought to market is not only greater, but of greater value than the whole 量 of butcher's meat; the whole 量 of butcher's meat, than the whole 量 of poultry; and the whole 量 of wild fowl. There are so many more purchasers for the cheap than for the dear 商品／必需品 that not only a greater 量 of it, but a greater value, can 一般的に be 性質の／したい気がして of. The whole 量, therefore, of the cheap 商品／必需品 must 一般的に be greater in 割合 to the whole 量 of the dear one than the value of a 確かな 量 of the dear one is to the value of an equal 量 of the cheap one. When we compare the precious metals with one another, silver is a cheap and gold a dear 商品／必需品. We ought 自然に to 推定する／予想する, therefore, that there should always be in the market not only a greater 量, but a greater value of silver than of gold. Let any man who has a little of both compare his own silver with his gold plate, and he will probably find that, not only the 量, but the value of the former 大いに 越えるs that of the latter. Many people, besides, have a good 取引，協定 of silver who have no gold plate, which, even with those who have it, is 一般に 限定するd to watchcases, 消す-boxes, and such like trinkets, of which the whole 量 is seldom of 広大な／多数の／重要な value. In the British coin, indeed, the value of the gold preponderates 大いに, but it is not so in that of all countries. In the coin of some countries the value of the two metals is nearly equal. In the Scotch coin, before the union with England, the gold preponderated very little, though it did somewhat, as it appears by the accounts of the 造幣局. In the coi n of many countries the silver preponderates. In フラン, the largest sums are 一般的に paid in that metal, and it is there difficult to get more gold than what is necessary to carry about in your pocket. The superior value, however, of the silver plate above that of the gold, which takes place in all countries, will much more than 補償する the preponderancy of the gold coin above the silver, which takes place only in some countries.

Though, in one sense of the word, silver always has been, and probably always will be, much cheaper than gold; yet in another sense gold may, perhaps, in the 現在の 明言する／公表する of the Spanish market, be said to be somewhat cheaper than silver. A 商品／必需品 may be said to be dear or cheap, not only によれば the 絶対の greatness or smallness of its usual price, but （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as that price is more or いっそう少なく above the lowest for which it is possible to bring it to market for any かなりの time together. This lowest price is that which barely 取って代わるs, with a 穏健な 利益（をあげる）, the 在庫／株 which must be 雇うd in bringing the 商品／必需品 thither. It is the price which affords nothing to the landlord, of which rent makes not any 構成要素 part, but which 解決するs itself altogether into 給料 and 利益（をあげる）. But, in the 現在の 明言する／公表する of the Spanish market, gold is certainly somewhat nearer to this lowest price than silver. The 税金 of the King of Spain upon gold is only one-twentieth part of the 基準 metal, or five per cent; 反して his 税金 upon silver 量s to one-tenth part of it, or to ten per cent. In these 税金s too, it has already been 観察するd, consists the whole rent of the greater part of the gold and silver 地雷s of Spanish America; and that upon gold is still worse paid than that upon silver. The 利益（をあげる）s of the undertakers of gold 地雷s too, as they more rarely make a fortune, must, in general, be still more 穏健な than those of the undertakers of silver 地雷s. The price of Spanish gold, therefore, as it affords both いっそう少なく rent and いっそう少なく 利益（をあげる）, must, in the Spanish market, be somewhat nearer to the lowest price for which it is possible to bring it thither than the price of Spanish silver. When all expenses are 計算するd, the whole 量 of the one metal, it would seem, cannot, in the Spanish market, be 性質の／したい気がして of so advantageously as the whole 量 of the other. The 税金, indeed, of the King of Portugal upon the gold of the Brazils is the same with the 古代の 税金 of the King of Spain upon the silver of Mexico and Peru; or one-fifth part of the 基準 metal. It may, therefore, be uncertain whether to the general market of Europe the whole 集まり of American gold comes at a price nearer to the lowest for which it is possible to bring it thither than the whole 集まり of American silver.

The price of diamonds and other precious 石／投石するs may, perhaps, be still nearer to the lowest price at which it is possible to bring them to market than even the price of gold.

Though it is not very probable that any part of a 税金, which is not only 課すd upon one of the most proper 支配するs of 課税, a mere 高級な and superfluity, but which affords so very important a 歳入 as the 税金 upon silver, will ever be given up as long as it is possible to 支払う／賃金 it; yet the same impossibility of 支払う／賃金ing it, which in 1736 made it necessary to 減ずる it from one-fifth to one-tenth, may in time make it necessary to 減ずる it still その上の; in the same manner as it made it necessary to 減ずる the 税金 upon gold to one-twentieth. That the silver 地雷s of Spanish America, like all other 地雷s, become 徐々に more expensive in the working, on account of the greater depths at which it is necessary to carry on the 作品, and of the greater expense of 製図／抽選 out the water and of 供給（する）ing them with fresh 空気／公表する at those depths, is 定評のある by everybody who has 問い合わせd into the 明言する／公表する of those 地雷s.

These 原因（となる）s, which are 同等（の） to a growing scarcity of silver (for a 商品／必需品 may be said to grow scarcer when it becomes more difficult and expensive to collect a 確かな 量 of it) must, in time, produce one or other of the three に引き続いて events. The 増加する of the expense must either, first, be 補償するd altogether by a proportionable 増加する in the price of the metal; or, secondly, it must be 補償するd altogether by a proportionable diminution of the 税金 upon silver; or, thirdly, it must be 補償するd partly by the one, and partly by the other of those two expedients. This third event is very possible. As gold rose in its price in 割合 to silver, notwithstanding a 広大な／多数の／重要な diminution of the 税金 upon gold, so silver might rise in its price in 割合 to 労働 and 商品／必需品s, notwithstanding an equal diminution of the 税金 upon silver.

Such 連続する 削減s of the 税金, however, though they may not 妨げる altogether, must certainly retard, more or いっそう少なく, the rise of the value of silver in the European market. In consequence of such 削減s many 地雷s may be wrought which could not be wrought before, because they could not afford to 支払う／賃金 the old 税金; and the 量 of silver 毎年 brought to market must always be somewhat greater, and, therefore, the value of any given 量 somewhat いっそう少なく, than it さもなければ would have been. In consequence of the 削減 in 1736, the value of silver in the European market, though it may not at this day be lower than before that 削減, is, probably, at least ten per cent lower than it would have been had the 法廷，裁判所 of Spain continued to exact the old 税金.

That, notwithstanding this 削減, the value of silver has, during the course of the 現在の century, begun to rise somewhat in the European market, the facts and arguments which have been 申し立てられた／疑わしい above 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる me to believe, or more 適切に to 嫌疑者，容疑者／疑う and conjecture; for the best opinion which I can form upon this 支配する 不十分な, perhaps, deserves the 指名する of belief. The rise, indeed, supposing there has been any, has hitherto been so very small that after all that has been said it may, perhaps, appear to many people uncertain, not only whether this event has 現実に taken place; but whether the contrary may not have taken place, or whether the value of the silver may not still continue to 落ちる in the European market.

It must be 観察するd, however, that whatever may be the supposed 年次の 輸入 of gold and silver, there must be a 確かな period at which the 年次の 消費 of those metals will be equal to that 年次の 輸入. Their 消費 must 増加する as their 集まり 増加するs, or rather in a much greater 割合. As their 集まり 増加するs, their value 減らすs. They are more used and いっそう少なく cared for, and their 消費 その結果 増加するs in a greater 割合 than their 集まり. After a 確かな period, therefore, the 年次の 消費 of those metals must, in this manner, become equal to their 年次の 輸入, 供給するd that 輸入 is not continually 増加するing; which, in the 現在の times, is not supposed to be the 事例／患者.

If, when the 年次の 消費 has become equal to the 年次の 輸入, the 年次の 輸入 should 徐々に 減らす, the 年次の 消費 may, for some time, 越える the 年次の 輸入. The 集まり of those metals may 徐々に and insensibly 減らす, and their value 徐々に and insensibly rise, till the 年次の 輸入 become again 静止している, the 年次の 消費 will 徐々に and insensibly 融通する itself to what that 年次の 輸入 can 持続する.

That that 増加する in the 量 of the precious metals, which arises in any country from the 増加する of wealth, has no 傾向 to 減らす their value, I have endeavoured to show already. Gold and silver 自然に 訴える手段／行楽地 to a rich country, for the same 推論する／理由 that all sorts of 高級なs and curiosities 訴える手段／行楽地 to it; not because they are cheaper there than in poorer countries, but because they are dearer, or because a better price is given for them. It is the 優越 of price which attracts them, and as soon as that 優越 中止するs, they やむを得ず 中止する to go thither.

If you except corn and such other vegetables as are raised altogether by human 産業, that all other sorts of rude produce, cattle, poultry, game of all 肉親，親類d, the useful 化石s and minerals of the earth, etc., 自然に grow dearer as the society 前進するs in wealth and 改良, I have endeavoured to show already. Though such 商品／必需品s, therefore, come to 交流 for a greater 量 of silver than before, it will not from thence follow that silver has become really cheaper, or will 購入（する） いっそう少なく 労働 than before, but that such 商品／必需品s have become really dearer, or will 購入（する） more 労働 than before. It is not their 名目上の price only, but their real price which rises in the 進歩 of 改良. The rise of their 名目上の price is the 影響, not of any degradation of the value of silver, but of the rise in their real price.

When the price of cattle, for example, rises so high that it is as profitable to cultivate land ーするために raise food for them as ーするために raise food for man, it cannot 井戸／弁護士席 go higher. If it did, more corn land would soon be turned into pasture. The 拡張 of tillage, by 減らすing the 量 of wild pasture, 減らすs the 量 of butcher's meat which the country 自然に produces without 労働 or cultivation, and by 増加するing the number of those who have either corn, or, what comes to the same thing, the price of corn, to give in 交流 for it, 増加するs the 需要・要求する. The price of butcher's meat, therefore, and その結果 of cattle, must 徐々に rise till it gets so high that it becomes as profitable to 雇う the most fertile and best cultivated lands in raising food for them as in raising corn. But it must always be late in the 進歩 of 改良 before tillage can be so far 延長するd as to raise the price of cattle to this 高さ; and till it has got to this 高さ, if the country is 前進するing at all, their price must be continually rising. There are, perhaps, some parts of Europe in which the price of cattle has not yet got to this 高さ. It had not got to this 高さ in any part of Scotland before the union. Had the Scotch cattle been always 限定するd to the market of Scotland, in a country in which the 量 of land which can be 適用するd to no other 目的 but the feeding of cattle is so 広大な／多数の／重要な in 割合 to what can be 適用するd to other 目的s, it is 不十分な possible, perhaps, that their price could ever have risen so high as to （判決などを）下す it profitable to cultivate land for the sake of feeding them. In England, the price of cattle, it has already been 観察するd, seems, in the neighbourhood of London, to have got to this 高さ about the beginning of the last century; but it was much later probably before it got to it through the greater part of the remoter 郡s; in some of which, perhaps, it may 不十分な yet have got to it. Of all the different 実体s, however, which comp ose this second sort of rude produce, cattle is, perhaps, that of which the price, in the 進歩 of 改良, first rises to this 高さ.

Till the price of cattle, indeed, has got to this 高さ, it seems 不十分な possible that the greater part, even of those lands which are 有能な of the highest cultivation, can be 完全に cultivated. In all farms too distant from any town to carry manure from it, that is, in the far greater part of those of every 広範囲にわたる country, the 量 of 井戸／弁護士席-cultivated land must be in 割合 to the 量 of manure which the farm itself produces; and this again must be in 割合 to the 在庫／株 of cattle which are 持続するd upon it. The land is manured either by pasturing the cattle upon it, or by feeding them in the stable, and from thence carrying out their dung to it. But unless the price of the cattle be 十分な to 支払う／賃金 both the rent and 利益（をあげる） of cultivated land, the 農業者 cannot afford to pasture them upon it; and he can still いっそう少なく afford to 料金d them in the stable. It is with the produce of 改善するd and cultivated land only that cattle can be fed in the stable; because to collect the scanty and scattered produce of waste and unimproved lands would 要求する too much 労働 and be too expensive. If the price of cattle, therefore, is not 十分な to 支払う／賃金 for the produce of 改善するd and cultivated land, when they are 許すd to pasture it, that price will be still いっそう少なく 十分な to 支払う／賃金 for that produce when it must be collected with a good 取引，協定 of 付加 労働, and brought into the stable to them. In these circumstances, therefore, no more cattle can, with 利益（をあげる）, be fed in the stable than what are necessary for tillage. But these can never afford manure enough for keeping 絶えず in good 条件 all the lands which they are 有能な of cultivating. What they afford 存在 insufficient for the whole farm will 自然に be reserved for the lands to which it can be most advantageously or conveniently 適用するd; the most fertile, or those, perhaps, in the neighbourhood of the farmyard. These, therefore, will be kept 絶えず in good 条件 and fit for tillage. The 残り／休憩（する） will, the greater part o f them, be 許すd to 嘘（をつく） waste, producing 不十分な anything but some 哀れな pasture, just 十分な to keep alive a few straggling, half-餓死するd cattle; the farm, though much understocked in 割合 to what would be necessary for its 完全にする cultivation, 存在 very frequently overstocked in 割合 to its actual produce. A 部分 of this waste land, however, after having been pastured in this wretched manner for six or seven years together, may be ploughed up, when it will 産する／生じる, perhaps, a poor 刈る or two of bad oats, or of some other coarse 穀物, and then, 存在 完全に exhausted, it must be 残り／休憩（する）d and pastured again as before and another 部分 ploughed up to be in the same manner exhausted and 残り／休憩（する）d again in its turn. Such accordingly was the general system of 管理／経営 all over the low country of Scotland before the union. The lands which were kept 絶えず 井戸／弁護士席 manured and in good 条件 seldom 越えるd a third or a fourth part of the whole farm, and いつかs did not 量 to a fifth or a sixth part of it. The 残り／休憩（する） were never manured, but a 確かな 部分 of them was in its turn, notwithstanding, 定期的に cultivated and exhausted. Under this system of 管理／経営, it is evident, even that part of the land of Scotland which is 有能な of good cultivation could produce but little in comparison of what it may be 有能な of producing. But how disadvantageous soever this system may appear, yet before the union the low price of cattle seems to have （判決などを）下すd it almost 避けられない. If, notwithstanding a 広大な／多数の／重要な rise in their price, it still continues to 勝つ／広く一帯に広がる through a かなりの part of the country, it is 借りがあるing, in many places, no 疑問, to ignorance and attachment to old customs, but in most places to the 避けられない obstructions which the natural course of things …に反対するs to the 即座の or 迅速な 設立 of a better system: first, to the poverty of the tenants, to their not having yet had time to acquire a 在庫／株 of cattle 十分な to cultivate their lands more 完全に, the same rise of price which would （判決などを）下す it advantageous for them to 持続する a greater 在庫／株 （判決などを）下すing it more difficult for them to acquire it; and, secondly, to their not having yet had time to put their lands in 条件 to 持続する this greater 在庫／株 適切に, supposing they were 有能な of acquiring it. The 増加する of 在庫／株 and the 改良 of land are two events which must go 手渡す in 手渡す, and of which the one can nowhere much outrun the other. Without some 増加する of 在庫／株 there can be 不十分な any 改良 of land, but there can be no かなりの 増加する of 在庫／株 but in consequence of a かなりの 改良 of land; because さもなければ the land could not 持続する it. These natural obstructions to the 設立 of a better system cannot be 除去するd but by a long course of frugality and 産業; and half a century or a century more, perhaps, must pass away before the old system, which is wearing out 徐々に, can be 完全に 廃止するd through all the different parts of the country. Of all the 商業の advantages, however, which Scotland has derived from the union with England, this rise in the price of cattle is, perhaps, the greatest. It has not only raised the value of all highland 広い地所s, but it has, perhaps, been the 主要な／長／主犯 原因（となる） of the 改良 of the low country.

In all new 植民地s the 広大な／多数の／重要な 量 of waste land, which can for many years be 適用するd to no other 目的 but the feeding of cattle, soon （判決などを）下すs them 極端に abundant, and in everything 広大な／多数の／重要な cheapness is the necessary consequence of 広大な／多数の／重要な 豊富. Though all the cattle of the European 植民地s in America were 初めは carried from Europe, they soon multiplied so much there, and became of so little value that even horses were 許すd to run wild in the 支持を得ようと努めるd without any owner thinking it 価値（がある） while to （人命などを）奪う，主張する them. It must be a long time, after the first 設立 of such 植民地s, before it can become profitable to 料金d cattle upon the produce of cultivated land. The same 原因（となる）s, therefore, the want of manure, and the disproportion between the 在庫／株 雇うd in cultivation, and the land which it is 運命にあるd to cultivate, are likely to introduce there a system of husbandry not unlike that which still continues to take place in so many parts of Scotland. Mr. Kalm, the Swedish traveller, when he gives an account of the husbandry of some of the English 植民地s in North America, as he 設立する it in 1749, 観察するs, accordingly, that he can with difficulty discover there the character of the English nation, so 井戸／弁護士席 技術d in all the different 支店s of 農業. They make 不十分な any manure for their corn fields, he says; but when one piece of ground has been exhausted by continual cropping, they （疑いを）晴らす and cultivate another piece of fresh land; and when that is exhausted, proceed to the third. Their cattle are 許すd to wander through the 支持を得ようと努めるd and other uncultivated grounds, where they are half-餓死するd; having long ago extirpated almost all the 年次の grasses by cropping them too 早期に in the spring, before they had time to form their flowers, or to shed their seeds. The 年次の grasses were, it seems, the best natural grasses in that part of North America; and when the Europeans first settled there, they used to grow very 厚い, and to rise three or four feet high. A piece of ground which, when he wrote, could not 持続する one cow, would in former times, he was 保証するd, have 持続するd four, each of which would have given four times the 量 of milk which that one was 有能な of giving. The poorness of the pasture had, in his opinion, occasioned the degradation of their cattle, which degenerated sensibly from one 世代 to another. They were probably not unlike that stunted 産む／飼育する which was ありふれた all over Scotland thirty or forty years ago, and which is now so much mended through the greater part of the low country, not so much by a change of the 産む／飼育する, though that expedient has been 雇うd in some places, as by a more plentiful method of feeding them.

Though it is late, therefore, in the 進歩 of 改良 before cattle can bring such a price as to （判決などを）下す it profitable to cultivate land for the sake of feeding them; yet of all the different parts which compose this second sort of rude produce, they are perhaps the first which bring this price; because till they bring it, it seems impossible that 改良 can be brought 近づく even to that degree of perfection to which it has arrived in many parts of Europe.

As cattle are の中で the first, so perhaps venison is の中で the last parts of this sort of rude produce which bring this price. The price of venison in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, how extravagant soever it may appear, is not 近づく 十分な to 補償する the expense of a deer park, as is 井戸／弁護士席 known to all those who have had any experience in the feeding of deer. If it was さもなければ, the feeding of deer would soon become an article of ありふれた farming, in the same manner as the feeding of those small birds called Turdi was の中で the 古代の Romans. Varro and Columella 保証する us that it was a most profitable article. The fattening of ortolans, birds of passage which arrive lean in the country, is said to be so in some parts of フラン. If venison continues in fashion, and the wealth and 高級な of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain 増加する as they have done for some time past, its price may very probably rise still higher than it is at 現在の.

Between that period in the 進歩 of 改良 which brings to its 高さ the price of so necessary an article as cattle, and that which brings to it the price of such a superfluity as venison, there is a very long interval, in the course of which many other sorts of rude produce 徐々に arrive at their highest price, some sooner and some later, によれば different circumstances.

Thus in every farm the offals of the barn and stables will 持続する a 確かな number of poultry. These, as they are fed with what would さもなければ be lost, are a mere save-all; and as they cost the 農業者 不十分な anything, so he can afford to sell them for very little. Almost all that he gets is pure 伸び（る）, and their price can 不十分な be so low as to discourage him from feeding this number. But in countries ill cultivated, and therefore but thinly 住むd, the poultry, which are thus raised without expense, are often fully 十分な to 供給（する） the whole 需要・要求する. In this 明言する／公表する of things, therefore, they are often as cheap as butcher's meat, or any other sort of animal food. But the whole 量 of poultry, which the farm in this manner produces without expense, must always be much smaller than the whole 量 of butcher's meat which is 後部d upon it; and in times of wealth and 高級な what is rare, with only nearly equal 長所, is always preferred to what is ありふれた. As wealth and 高級な 増加する, therefore, in consequence of 改良 and cultivation, the price of poultry 徐々に rises above that of butcher's meat, till at last it gets so high that it becomes profitable to cultivate land for the sake of feeding them. When it has got to this 高さ it cannot 井戸／弁護士席 go higher. If it did, more land would soon be turned to this 目的. In several 州s of フラン, the feeding of poultry is considered as a very important article in 田舎の economy, and 十分に profitable to encourage the 農業者 to raise a かなりの 量 of Indian corn and buck-wheat for this 目的. A middling 農業者 will there いつかs have four hundred fowls in his yard. The feeding of poultry seems 不十分な yet to be 一般に considered as a 事柄 of so much importance in England. They are certainly, however, dearer in England than in フラン, as England receives かなりの 供給（する）s from フラン. In the 進歩 of 改良, the period at which every particular sort of animal food is dearest must 自然に be that which immed iately に先行するs the general practice of cultivating land for the sake of raising it. For some time before this practice becomes general, the scarcity must やむを得ず raise the price. After it has become general, new methods of feeding are 一般的に fallen upon, which enable the 農業者 to raise upon the same 量 of ground a much greater 量 of that particular sort of animal food. The plenty not only 強いるs him to sell cheaper, but in consequence of these 改良s he can afford to sell cheaper; for if he could not afford it, the plenty would not be of long continuance. It has been probably in this manner that the introduction of clover, turnips, carrots, cabbage, etc., has 与える／捧げるd to 沈む the ありふれた price of butcher's meat in the London market somewhat below what it was about the beginning of the last century.

The hog, that finds his food の中で ordure and greedily devours many things 拒絶するd by every other useful animal, is, like poultry, 初めは kept as a save-all. As long as the number of such animals, which can thus be 後部d at little or no expense, is fully 十分な to 供給（する） the 需要・要求する, this sort of butcher's meat comes to market at a much lower price than any other. But when the 需要・要求する rises beyond what this 量 can 供給（する）, when it becomes necessary to raise food on 目的 for feeding and fattening hogs, in the same manner as for feeding and fattening other cattle, the price やむを得ず rises, and becomes proportionably higher or lower than that of other butcher's meat, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the nature of the country, and the 明言する／公表する of its 農業, happen to （判決などを）下す the feeding of hogs more or いっそう少なく expensive than that of other cattle. In フラン, によれば Mr. Buffon, the price of pork is nearly equal to that of beef. In most parts of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain it is at 現在の somewhat higher.

The 広大な／多数の／重要な rise in the price of both hogs and poultry has in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain been frequently imputed to the diminution of the number of cottagers and other small occupiers of land; an event which has in every part of Europe been the 即座の forerunner of 改良 and better cultivation, but which at the same time may have 与える／捧げるd to raise the price of those articles both somewhat sooner and somewhat faster than it would さもなければ have risen. As the poorest family can often 持続する a cat or a dog without any expense, so the poorest occupiers of land can 一般的に 持続する a few poultry, or a （種を）蒔く and a few pigs, at very little. The little offals of their own （米）棚上げする／（英）提議する, their whey, skimmed milk, and buttermilk, 供給（する） those animals with a part of their food, and they find the 残り／休憩（する） in the 隣人ing fields without doing any sensible 損失 to anybody. By 減らすing the number of those small occupiers, therefore, the 量 of this sort of 準備／条項s, which is thus produced at little or no expense, must certainly have been a good 取引，協定 減らすd, and their price must その結果 have been raised both sooner and faster than it would さもなければ have risen. Sooner or later, however, in the 進歩 of 改良, it must at any 率 have risen to the 最大の 高さ to which it is 有能な of rising; or to the price which 支払う／賃金s the 労働 and expense of cultivating the land which furnishes them with food 同様に as these are paid upon the greater part of other cultivated land.

The 商売／仕事 of the 酪農場, like the feeding of hogs and poultry, is 初めは carried on as a save-all. The cattle やむを得ず kept upon the farm produce more milk than either the 後部ing of their own young or the 消費 of the 農業者's family 要求するs; and they produce most at one particular season. But of all the 生産／産物s of land, milk is perhaps the most perishable. In the warm season, when it is most abundant, it will 不十分な keep four-and-twenty hours. The 農業者, by making it into fresh butter, 蓄える／店s a small part of it for a week: by making it into salt butter, for a year: and by making it into cheese, he 蓄える／店s a much greater part of it for several years. Part of all these is reserved for the use of his own family. The 残り／休憩（する） goes to market, ーするために find the best price which is to be had, and which can 不十分な be so low as to discourage him from sending thither whatever is over and above the use of his own family. If it is very low, indeed, he will be likely to manage his 酪農場 in a very slovenly and dirty manner, and will 不十分な perhaps think it 価値（がある） while to have a particular room or building on 目的 for it, but will 苦しむ the 商売／仕事 to be carried on まっただ中に the smoke, filth, and nastiness of his own kitchen; as was the 事例／患者 of almost all the 農業者s' 酪農場s in Scotland thirty or forty years ago, and as is the 事例／患者 of many of them still. The same 原因（となる）s which 徐々に raise the price of butcher's meat, the 増加する of the 需要・要求する, and, in consequence of the 改良 of the country, the diminution of the 量 which can be fed at little or no expense, raise, in the same manner, that of the produce of the 酪農場, of which the price 自然に connects with that of butcher's meat, or with the expense of feeding cattle. The 増加する of price 支払う／賃金s for more 労働, care, and cleanliness. The 酪農場 becomes more worthy of the 農業者's attention, and the 質 of its produce 徐々に 改善するs. The price at last gets so high that it becomes 価値（がある） while to 雇う some of the most fertile an d best cultivated lands in feeding cattle 単に for the 目的 of the 酪農場; and when it has got to this 高さ, it cannot 井戸／弁護士席 go higher. If it did, more land would soon be turned to this 目的. It seems to have got to this 高さ through the greater part of England, where much good land is 一般的に 雇うd in this manner. If you except the neighbourhood of a few かなりの towns, it seems not yet to have got to this 高さ anywhere in Scotland, where ありふれた 農業者s seldom 雇う much good land in raising food for cattle 単に for the 目的 of the 酪農場. The price of the produce, though it has risen very かなり within these few years, is probably still too low to 収容する／認める of it. The inferiority of the 質, indeed, compared with that of the produce of English 酪農場s, is fully equal to that of the price. But this inferiority of 質 is, perhaps, rather the 影響 of this lowness of price than the 原因（となる） of it. Though the 質 was much better, the greater part of what is brought to market could not, I apprehend, in the 現在の circumstances of the country, be 性質の／したい気がして of at a much better price; and the 現在の price, it is probable would not 支払う／賃金 the expense of the land and 労働 necessary for producing a much better 質. Though the greater part of England, notwithstanding the 優越 of price, the 酪農場 is not reckoned a more profitable 雇用 of land than the raising of corn, or the fattening of cattle, the two 広大な／多数の／重要な 反対するs of 農業. Through the greater part of Scotland, therefore, it cannot yet be even so profitable.

The lands of no country, it is evident, can ever be 完全に cultivated and 改善するd till once the price of every produce, which human 産業 is 強いるd to raise upon them, has got so high as to 支払う／賃金 for the expense of 完全にする 改良 and cultivation. ーするために do this, the price of each particular produce must be 十分な, first, to 支払う／賃金 the rent of good corn land, as it is that which 規制するs the rent of the greater part of other cultivated land; and, secondly, to 支払う／賃金 the 労働 and expense of the 農業者 同様に as they are 一般的に paid upon good corn land; or, in other words, to 取って代わる with the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s the 在庫／株 which he 雇うs about it. This rise in the price of each particular produce must evidently be previous to the 改良 and cultivation of the land which is 運命にあるd for raising it. 伸び（る） is the end of all 改良, and nothing could deserve that 指名する of which loss was to be the necessary consequence. But loss must be the necessary consequence of 改善するing land for the sake of a produce of which the price could never bring 支援する the expense. If the 完全にする 改良 and cultivation of the country be, as it most certainly is, the greatest of all public advantages, this rise in the price of all those different sorts of rude produce, instead of 存在 considered as a public calamity, せねばならない be regarded as the necessary forerunner and attendant of the greatest of all public advantages.

This rise, too, in the 名目上の or money-price of all those different sorts of rude produce has been the 影響, not of any degradation in the value of silver, but of a rise in their real price. They have become 価値（がある）, not only a greater 量 of silver, but a greater 量 of 労働 and subsistence than before. As it costs a greater 量 of 労働 and subsistence to bring them to market, so when they are brought thither, they 代表する or are 同等（の） to a greater 量.

There are some sorts of rude produce which nature has （判決などを）下すd a 肉親，親類d of appendages to other sorts; so that the 量 of the one which any country can afford, is やむを得ず 限られた／立憲的な by that of the other. The 量 of wool or of raw hides, for example, which any country can afford is やむを得ず 限られた／立憲的な by the number of 広大な／多数の／重要な and small cattle that are kept in it. The 明言する／公表する of its 改良, and the nature of its 農業, again やむを得ず 決定する this number.

The same 原因（となる）s which, in the 進歩 of 改良, 徐々に raise the price of butcher's meat, should have the same 影響, it may be thought, upon the prices of wool and raw hides, and raise them, too, nearly in the same 割合. It probably would be so if, in the rude beginnings of 改良, the market for the latter 商品／必需品s was 限定するd within as 狭くする bounds as that for the former. But the extent of their 各々の markets is 一般的に 極端に different.

The market for butcher's meat is almost everywhere 限定するd to the country which produces it. Ireland, and some part of British America indeed, carry on a かなりの 貿易（する） in salt 準備／条項s; but they are, I believe, the only countries in the 商業の world which do so, or which 輸出（する） to other countries any かなりの part of their butcher's meat.

The market for wool and raw hides, on the contrary, is in the rude beginnings of 改良 very seldom 限定するd to the country which produces them. They can easily be 輸送（する）d to distant countries, wool without any 準備, and raw hides with very little: and as they are the 構成要素s of many 製造（する）s, the 産業 of other countries may occasion a 需要・要求する for them, though that of the country which produces them might not occasion any.

In countries ill cultivated, and therefore but thinly 住むd, the price of the wool and the hide 耐えるs always a much greater 割合 to that of the whole beast than in countries where, 改良 and 全住民 存在 その上の 前進するd, there is more 需要・要求する for butcher's meat. Mr. Hume 観察するs that in the Saxon times the fleece was 概算の at two-fifths of the value of the whole sheep, and that this was much above the 割合 of its 現在の estimation. In some 州s of Spain, I have been 保証するd, the sheep is frequently killed 単に for the sake of the fleece and the tallow. The carcase is often left to rot upon the ground, or to be devoured by beasts and birds of prey. If this いつかs happens even in Spain, it happens almost 絶えず in Chili, at Buenos Ayres, and in many other parts of Spanish America, where the horned cattle are almost 絶えず killed 単に for the sake of the hide and the tallow. This, too, used to happen almost 絶えず in Hispaniola, while it was infested by the Buccaneers, and before the 解決／入植地, 改良, and populousness of the French 農園s (which now 延長する 一連の会議、交渉／完成する the coast of almost the whole western half of the island) had given some value to the cattle of the Spaniards, who still continue to 所有する, not only the eastern part of the coast, but the whole inland and 山地の part of the country.

Though in the 進歩 of 改良 and 全住民 the price of the whole beast やむを得ず rises, yet the price of the carcase is likely to be much more 影響する／感情d by this rise than that of the wool and the hide. The market for the carcase, 存在 in the rude 明言する／公表する of society 限定するd always to the country which produces it, must やむを得ず be 延長するd in 割合 to the 改良 and 全住民 of that country. But the market for the wool and the hides even of a barbarous country often 延長するing to the whole 商業の world, it can very seldom be 大きくするd in the same 割合. The 明言する／公表する of the whole 商業の world can seldom be much 影響する／感情d by the 改良 of any particular country; and the market for such 商品／必需品s may remain the same or very nearly the same after such 改良s as before. It should, however, in the natural course of things rather upon the whole be somewhat 延長するd in consequence of them. If the 製造（する）s, 特に, of which those 商品／必需品s are the 構成要素s should ever come to 繁栄する in the country, the market, though it might not be much 大きくするd, would at least be brought much nearer to the place of growth than before; and the price of those 構成要素s might at least be 増加するd by what had usually been the expense of 輸送（する）ing them to distant countries. Though it might not rise therefore in the same 割合 as that of butcher's meat, it ought 自然に to rise somewhat, and it ought certainly not to 落ちる.

In England, however, notwithstanding the 繁栄するing 明言する／公表する of its woollen 製造（する）, the price of English wool has fallen very かなり since the time of Edward III. There are many authentic 記録，記録的な／記録するs which 論証する that during the 統治する of that prince (に向かって the middle of the fourteenth century, or about 1339) what was reckoned the 穏健な and reasonable price of the tod, or twenty-eight 続けざまに猛撃するs of English wool, was not いっそう少なく than ten shillings of the money of those times, 含む／封じ込めるing at the 率 of twentypence the ounce, six ounces of silver Tower 負わせる, equal to about thirty shillings of our 現在の money. In the 現在の times, one-and-twenty shillings the tod may be reckoned a good price for very good English wool. The money-price of wool, therefore, in the time of Edward III, was to its money-price in the 現在の times as ten to seven. The 優越 of its real price was still greater. At the 率 of six shillings and eightpence the ４半期/4分の1, ten shillings was in those 古代の times the price of twelve bushels of wheat. At the 率 of twenty-eight shillings the ４半期/4分の1, one-and-twenty shillings is in the 現在の times the price of six bushels only. The 割合 between the real prices of 古代の and modern times, therefore, is as twelve to six, or as two to one. In those 古代の times a tod of wool would have 購入（する）d twice the 量 of subsistence which it will 購入（する） at 現在の; and その結果 twice the 量 of 労働, if the real recompense of 労働 had been the same in both periods.

This degradation both in the real and 名目上の value of wool could never have happened in consequence of the natural course of things. It has accordingly been the 影響 of 暴力／激しさ and artifice: first, of the 絶対の 禁止 of 輸出（する）ing wool from England; secondly, of the 許可 of 輸入するing it from Spain 義務 解放する／自由な; thirdly, of the 禁止 of 輸出（する）ing it from Ireland to any other country but England. In consequence of these 規則s the market for English wool, instead of 存在 somewhat 延長するd in consequence of the 改良 of England, has been 限定するd to the home market, where the wool of several other countries is 許すd to come into 競争 with it, and where that of Ireland is 軍隊d into 競争 with it. As the woollen 製造（する）s, too, of Ireland are fully as much discouraged as is 一貫した with 司法（官） and fair 取引，協定ing, the Irish can work up but a small part of their own wool at home, and are, therefore, 強いるd to send a greater 割合 of it to 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, the only market they are 許すd.

I have not been able to find any such authentic 記録，記録的な／記録するs 関心ing the price of raw hides in 古代の times. Wool was 一般的に paid as a 補助金 to the king, and its valuation in that 補助金 ascertains, at least in some degree, what was its ordinary price. But this seems not to have been the 事例／患者 with raw hides. Fleetwood, however, from an account in 1425, between the 事前の of Burcester Oxford and one of his canons, gives us their price, at least as it was 明言する／公表するd upon that particular occasion, viz., five ox hides at twelve shillings; five cow hides at seven shillings and threepence; thirty-six sheep 肌s of two years old at nine shillings; sixteen calves 肌s at two shillings. In 1425, twelve shillings 含む／封じ込めるd about the same 量 of silver as four-and-twenty shillings of our 現在の money. An ox hide, therefore, was in this account valued at the same 量 of silver as 4s. four-fifths of our 現在の money. Its 名目上の price was a good 取引，協定 lower than at 現在の. But at the 率 of six shillings and eightpence the ４半期/4分の1, twelve shillings would in those times have 購入（する）d fourteen bushels and four-fifths of a bushel of wheat, which, at three and sixpence the bushel, would in the 現在の times cost 51s. 4d. An ox hide, therefore, would in those times have 購入（する）d as much corn as ten shillings and threepence would 購入（する） at 現在の. Its real value was equal to ten shillings and threepence of our 現在の money. In those 古代の times, when the cattle were half 餓死するd during the greater part of the winter, we cannot suppose that they were of a very large size. An ox hide which 重さを計るs four 石／投石する of sixteen 続けざまに猛撃するs avoirdupois is not in the 現在の times reckoned a bad one; and in those 古代の times would probably have been reckoned a very good one. But at half-a-栄冠を与える the 石／投石する, which at this moment (February 1773) I understand to be the ありふれた price, such a hide would at 現在の cost only ten shillings. Though its 名目上の price, therefore, is higher in the 現在の than it was in those 古代の times , its real price, the real 量 of subsistence which it will 購入（する） or 命令（する）, is rather somewhat lower. The price of cow hides, as 明言する／公表するd in the above account, is nearly in the ありふれた 割合 to that of ox hides. That of sheep 肌s is a good 取引，協定 above it. They had probably been sold with the wool. That of calves 肌s, on the contrary, is 大いに below it. In countries where the price of cattle is very low, the calves, which are not ーするつもりであるd to be 後部d ーするために keep up the 在庫／株, are 一般に killed very young; as was the 事例／患者 in Scotland twenty or thirty years ago. It saves the milk, which their price would not 支払う／賃金 for. Their 肌s, therefore, are 一般的に good for little.

The price of raw hides is a good 取引，協定 lower at 現在の than it was a few years ago, 借りがあるing probably to the taking off the 義務 upon sealskins, and to the 許すing, for a 限られた／立憲的な time, the 輸入 of raw hides from Ireland and from the 農園s 義務 解放する／自由な, which was done in 1769. Take the whole of the 現在の century at an 普通の／平均（する）, their real price has probably been somewhat higher than it was in those 古代の times. The nature of the 商品／必需品 （判決などを）下すs it not やめる so proper for 存在 輸送（する）d to distant markets as wool. It 苦しむs more by keeping. A salted hide is reckoned inferior to a fresh one, and sells for a lower price. This circumstance must やむを得ず have some 傾向 to 沈む the price of raw hides produced in a country which does not 製造（する） them, but is 強いるd to 輸出（する） them; and comparatively to raise that of those produced in a country which does 製造（する） them. It must have some 傾向 to 沈む their price in a barbarous, and to raise it in an 改善するd and 製造業の country. It must have had some 傾向, therefore, to 沈む it in 古代の and to raise it in modern times. Our tanners, besides, have not been やめる so successful as our clothiers in 納得させるing the 知恵 of the nation that the safety of the 連邦／共和国 depends upon the 繁栄 of their particular 製造（する）. They have accordingly been much いっそう少なく favoured. The exportation of raw hides has, indeed, been 禁じるd, and 宣言するd a nuisance; but their 輸入 from foreign countries has been 支配するd to a 義務; and though this 義務 has been taken off from those of Ireland and the 農園s (for the 限られた／立憲的な time of five years only), yet Ireland has not been 限定するd to the market of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain for the sale of its 黒字／過剰 hides, or of those which are not 製造（する）d at home. The hides of ありふれた cattle have but within these few years been put の中で the enumerated 商品／必需品s which the 農園s can send nowhere but to the mother country; neither has the 商業 of Ireland been in this 事例／患者 抑圧するd hith erto ーするために support the 製造（する）s of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain.

Whatever 規則s tend to 沈む the price either of wool or of raw hides below what it 自然に would be must, in an 改善するd and cultivated country, have some 傾向 to raise the price of butcher's meat. The price both of the 広大な／多数の／重要な and small cattle, which are fed on 改善するd and cultivated land, must be 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the rent which the landlord and the 利益（をあげる） which the 農業者 has 推論する／理由 to 推定する／予想する from 改善するd and cultivated land. If it is not, they will soon 中止する to 料金d them. Whatever part of this price, therefore, is not paid by the wool and the hide must be paid by the carcase. The いっそう少なく there is paid for the one, the more must be paid for the other. In what manner this price is to be divided upon the different parts of the beast is indifferent to the landlords and 農業者s, 供給するd it is all paid to them. In an 改善するd and cultivated country, therefore, their 利益／興味 as landlords and 農業者s cannot be much 影響する／感情d by such 規則s, though their 利益／興味 as 消費者s may, by the rise in the price of 準備／条項s. It would be やめる さもなければ, however, in an unimproved and uncultivated country, where the greater part of the lands could be 適用するd to no other 目的 but the feeding of cattle, and where the wool and the hide made the 主要な／長／主犯 part of the value of those cattle. Their 利益／興味 as landlords and 農業者s would in this 事例／患者 be very 深く，強烈に 影響する／感情d by such 規則s, and their 利益／興味 as 消費者s very little. The 落ちる in the price of wool and the hide would not in this 事例／患者 raise the price of the carcase, because the greater part of the lands of the country 存在 applicable to no other 目的 but the feeding of cattle, the same number would still continue to be fed. The same 量 of butcher's meat would still come to market. The 需要・要求する for it would be no greater than before. Its price, therefore, would be the same as before. The whole price of cattle would 落ちる, and along with it both the rent and the 利益（をあげる） of all those lands of which cattle was the 主要な／長／主犯 produce, that is, of the greater part of the lands of the country. The perpetual 禁止 of the exportation of wool, which is 一般的に, but very 誤って, ascribed to Edward III, would, in the then circumstances of the country, have been the most destructive 規則 which could 井戸／弁護士席 have been thought of. It would not only have 減ずるd the actual value of the greater part of the lands of the kingdom, but by 減ずるing the price of the most important 種類 of small cattle it would have retarded very much its その後の 改良.

The wool of Scotland fell very かなり in its price in consequence of the union with England, by which it was 除外するd from the 広大な／多数の／重要な market of Europe, and 限定するd to the 狭くする one of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. The value of the greater part of the lands in the southern 郡s of Scotland, which are 主として a sheep country, would have been very 深く，強烈に 影響する／感情d by this event, had not the rise in the price of butcher's meat fully 補償するd the 落ちる in the price of wool.

As the efficacy of human 産業, in 増加するing the 量 either of wool or of raw hides, is 限られた／立憲的な, so far as it depends upon the produce of the country where it is 発揮するd; so it is uncertain so far as it depends upon the produce of other countries. It so far depends, not so much upon the 量 which they produce, as upon that which they do not 製造（する）; and upon the 抑制s which they may or may not think proper to 課す upon the exportation of this sort of rude produce. These circumstances, as they are altogether 独立した・無所属 of 国内の 産業, so they やむを得ず （判決などを）下す the efficacy of its 成果／努力s more or いっそう少なく uncertain. In multiplying this sort of rude produce, therefore, the efficacy of human 産業 is not only 限られた／立憲的な, but uncertain.

In multiplying another very important sort of rude produce, the 量 of fish that is brought to market, it is likewise both 限られた／立憲的な and uncertain. It is 限られた／立憲的な by the 地元の 状況／情勢 of the country, by the proximity or distance of its different 州s from the sea, by the number of its lakes and rivers, and by what may be called the fertility or barrenness of those seas, lakes, and rivers, as to this sort of rude produce. As 全住民 増加するs, as the 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of the country grows greater and greater, there come to be more 買い手s of fish, and those 買い手s, too, have a greater 量 and variety of other goods, or, what is the same thing, the price of a greater 量 and variety of other goods to buy with. But it will 一般に be impossible to 供給（する） the 広大な／多数の／重要な and 延長するd market without 雇うing a 量 of 労働 greater than in 割合 to what had been requisite for 供給（する）ing the 狭くする and 限定するd one. A market which, from 要求するing only one thousand, comes to 要求する 毎年 ten thousand トンs of fish, can seldom be 供給（する）d without 雇うing more than ten times the 量 of 労働 which had before been 十分な to 供給（する） it. The fish must 一般に be fought for at a greater distance, larger 大型船s must be 雇うd, and more expensive 機械／機構 of every 肉親，親類d made use of. The real price of this 商品／必需品, therefore, 自然に rises in the 進歩 of 改良. It has accordingly done so, I believe, more or いっそう少なく in every country.

Though the success of a particular day's fishing may be a very uncertain 事柄, yet, the 地元の 状況／情勢 of the country 存在 supposed, the general efficacy of 産業 in bringing a 確かな 量 of fish to market, taking the course of a year, or of several years together, it may perhaps be thought is 確かな enough; and it no 疑問 is so. As it depends more, however, upon the 地元の 状況／情勢 of the country than upon the 明言する／公表する of its wealth and 産業; as upon this account it may in different countries be the same in very different periods of 改良, and very different in the same period; its 関係 with the 明言する／公表する of 改良 is uncertain, and it is of this sort of 不確定 that I am here speaking.

In 増加するing the 量 of the different minerals and metals which are drawn from the bowels of the earth, that of the more precious ones 特に, the efficacy of human 産業 seems not to be 限られた／立憲的な, but to be altogether uncertain.

The 量 of the precious metals which is to be 設立する in any country is not 限られた／立憲的な by anything in its 地元の 状況／情勢, such as the fertility or barrenness of its own 地雷s. Those metals frequently abound in countries which 所有する no 地雷s. Their 量 in every particular country seems to depend upon two different circumstances; first, upon its 力／強力にする of 購入（する）ing, upon the 明言する／公表する of its 産業, upon the 年次の produce of its land and 労働, in consequence of which it can afford to 雇う a greater or a smaller 量 of 労働 and subsistence in bringing or 購入（する）ing such superfluities as gold and silver, either from its own 地雷s or from those of other countries; and, secondly, upon the fertility or barrenness of the 地雷s which may happen at any particular time to 供給（する） the 商業の world with those metals. The 量 of those metals in the countries most remote from the 地雷s must be more or いっそう少なく 影響する／感情d by this fertility or barrenness, on account of the 平易な and cheap transportation of those metals, of their small 本体，大部分／ばら積みの and 広大な／多数の／重要な value. Their 量 in 中国 and Indostan must have been more or いっそう少なく 影響する／感情d by the 豊富 of the 地雷s of America.

So far as their 量 in any particular country depends upon the former of those two circumstances (the 力／強力にする of 購入（する）ing), their real price, like that of all other 高級なs and superfluities, is likely to rise with the wealth and 改良 of the country, and to 落ちる with its poverty and 不景気. Countries which have a 広大な／多数の／重要な 量 of 労働 and subsistence to spare can afford to 購入（する） any particular 量 of those metals at the expense of a greater 量 of 労働 and subsistence than countries which have いっそう少なく to spare.

So far as their 量 in any particular country depends upon the latter of those two circumstances (the fertility or barrenness of the 地雷s which happen to 供給（する） the 商業の world), their real price, the real 量 of 労働 and subsistence which they will 購入（する） or 交流 for, will, no 疑問, 沈む more or いっそう少なく in 割合 to the fertility, and rise in 割合 to the barrenness of those 地雷s.

The fertility or barrenness of the 地雷s, however, which may happen at any particular time to 供給（する） the 商業の world, is a circumstance which, it is evident, may have no sort of 関係 with the 明言する／公表する of 産業 in a particular country. It seems even to have no very necessary 関係 with that of the world in general. As arts and 商業, indeed, 徐々に spread themselves over a greater and a greater part of the earth, the search for new 地雷s, 存在 延長するd over a wider surface, may have somewhat a better chance for 存在 successful than when 限定するd within narrower bounds. The 発見 of new 地雷s, however, as the old ones come to be 徐々に exhausted, is a 事柄 of the greatest 不確定, and such as no human 技術 or 産業 can 確実にする. All 指示，表示する物s, it is 定評のある, are doubtful, and the actual 発見 and successful working of a new 地雷 can alone ascertain the reality of its value, or even of its 存在. In this search there seem to be no 確かな 限界s either to the possible success or to the possible 失望 of human 産業. In the course of a century or two, it is possible that new 地雷s may be discovered more fertile than any that have ever yet been known; and it is just 平等に possible the most fertile 地雷 then known may be more barren than any that was wrought before the 発見 of the 地雷s of America. Whether the one or the other of those two events may happen to take place is of very little importance to the real wealth and 繁栄 of the world, to the real value of the 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of mankind. Its 名目上の value, the 量 of gold and silver by which this 年次の produce could be 表明するd or 代表するd, would, no 疑問, be very different; but its real value, the real 量 of 労働 which it could 購入（する） or 命令（する）, would be 正確に the same. A shilling might in the one 事例／患者 代表する no more 労働 than a penny does at 現在の; and a penny in the other might 代表する as much as a shilling does now. But in th e one 事例／患者 he who had a shilling in his pocket would be no richer than he who has a penny at 現在の; and in the other he who had a penny would be just as rich as he who has a shilling now. The cheapness and 豊富 of gold and silver plate would be the 単独の advantage which the world could derive from the one event, and the dearness and scarcity of those trifling superfluities the only inconveniency it could を煩う the other.

As the low value of gold and silver, therefore, is no proof of the wealth and 繁栄するing 明言する／公表する of the country where it takes place; so neither is their high value, or the low money price either of goods in general, or of corn in particular, any proof of its poverty and 野蛮／未開.

But though the low money price either of goods in general, or of corn in particular, be no proof of the poverty or 野蛮／未開 of the times, the low money price of some particular sorts of goods, such as cattle, poultry, game of all 肉親，親類d, etc., in 割合 to that of corn, is a most 決定的な one. It 明確に 論証するs, first, their 広大な／多数の／重要な 豊富 in 割合 to that of corn, and その結果 the 広大な／多数の／重要な extent of the land which they 占領するd in 割合 to what was 占領するd by corn; and, secondly, the low value of this land in 割合 to that of corn land, and その結果 the uncultivated and unimproved 明言する／公表する of the far greater part of the lands of the country. It 明確に 論証するs that the 在庫／株 and 全住民 of the country did not 耐える the same 割合 to the extent of its 領土 which they 一般的に do in civilised countries, and that society was at that time, and in that country, but in its 幼少／幼藍期. From the high or low money price either of goods in general, or of corn in particular, we can infer only that the 地雷s which at that time happened to 供給（する） the 商業の world with gold and silver were fertile or barren, not that the country was rich or poor. But from the high or low money price of some sorts of goods in 割合 to that of others, we can infer, with a degree of probability that approaches almost to certainty, that it was rich or poor, that the greater part of its lands were 改善するd or unimproved, and that it was either in a more or いっそう少なく barbarous 明言する／公表する, or in a more or いっそう少なく civilised one.

Any rise in the money price of goods which proceeded altogether from the degradation of the value of silver would 影響する／感情 all sorts of goods 平等に, and raise their price universally a third, or a fourth, or a fifth part higher, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as silver happened to lose a third, or a fourth, or a fifth part of its former value. But the rise in the price of 準備／条項s, which has been the 支配する of so much 推論する／理由ing and conversation, does not 影響する／感情 all sorts of 準備／条項s 平等に. Taking the course of the 現在の century at an 普通の／平均（する）, the price of corn, it is 定評のある, even by those who account for this rise by the degradation of the value of silver, has risen much いっそう少なく than that of some other sorts of 準備／条項s. The rise in the price of those other sorts of 準備／条項s, therefore, cannot be 借りがあるing altogether to the degradation of the value of silver. Some other 原因（となる）s must be taken into the account, and those which have been above 割り当てるd will, perhaps, without having 頼みの綱 to the supposed degradation of the value of silver, 十分に explain this rise in those particular sorts of 準備／条項s of which the price has 現実に risen in 割合 to that of corn.

As to the price of corn itself, it has, during the sixty-four first years of the 現在の century, and before the late 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の course of bad seasons, been somewhat lower than it was during the sixty-four last years of the 先行する century. This fact is attested, not only by the accounts of Windsor market, but by the public fiars of all the different 郡s of Scotland, and by the accounts of several different markets in フラン, which have been collected with 広大な／多数の／重要な diligence and fidelity by Mr. Messance and by Mr. Dupre de St. Maur. The 証拠 is more 完全にする than could 井戸／弁護士席 have been 推定する／予想するd in a 事柄 which is 自然に so very difficult to be ascertained.

As to the high price of corn during these last ten or twelve years, it can be 十分に accounted for from the badness of the seasons, without supposing any degradation in the value of silver. The opinion, therefore, that silver is continually 沈むing in its value, seems not to be 設立するd upon any good 観察s, either upon the prices of corn, or upon those of other 準備／条項s.

The same 量 of silver, it may, perhaps, be said, will in the 現在の times, even によれば the account which has been here given, 購入（する） a much smaller 量 of several sorts of 準備／条項s than it would have done during some part of the last century; and to ascertain whether this change be 借りがあるing to a rise in the value of those goods, or to a 落ちる in the value of silver, is only to 設立する a vain and useless distinction, which can be of no sort of service to the man who has only a 確かな 量 of silver to go to market with, or a 確かな 直す／買収する，八百長をするd 歳入 in money. I certainly do not pretend that the knowledge of this distinction will enable him to buy cheaper. It may not, however, upon that account be altogether useless.

It may be of some use to the public by affording an 平易な proof of the 繁栄する 条件 of the country. If the rise in the price of some sorts of 準備／条項s be 借りがあるing altogether to a 落ちる in the value of silver, it is 借りがあるing to a circumstance from which nothing can be inferred but the fertility of the American 地雷s. The real wealth of the country, the 年次の produce of its land and 労働, may, notwithstanding this circumstance, be either 徐々に 拒絶する／低下するing, as in Portugal and Poland; or 徐々に 前進するing, as in most other parts of Europe. But if this rise in the price of some sorts of 準備／条項s be 借りがあるing to a rise in the real value of the land which produces them, to its 増加するd fertility, or, in consequence of more 延長するd 改良 and good cultivation, to its having been （判決などを）下すd fit for producing corn; it is 借りがあるing to a circumstance which 示すs in the clearest manner the 繁栄する and 前進するing 明言する／公表する of the country. The land 構成するs by far the greatest, the most important, and the most 持続する part of the wealth of every 広範囲にわたる country. It may surely be of some use, or, at least, it may give some satisfaction to the public, to have so 決定的な a proof of the 増加するing value of by far the greatest, the most important, and the most 持続する part of its wealth.

It may, too, be of some use to the public in 規制するing the pecuniary reward of some of its inferior servants. If this rise in the price of some sorts of 準備／条項s be 借りがあるing to a 落ちる in the value of silver, their pecuniary reward, 供給するd it was not too large before, ought certainly to be augmented in 割合 to the extent of this 落ちる. If it is not augmented, their real recompense will evidently be so much 減らすd. But if this rise of price is 借りがあるing to the 増加するd value, in consequence of the 改善するd fertility of the land which produces such 準備／条項s, it becomes a much nicer 事柄 to 裁判官 either in what 割合 any pecuniary reward せねばならない be augmented, or whether it せねばならない be augmented at all. The 拡張 of 改良 and cultivation, as it やむを得ず raises more or いっそう少なく, in 割合 to the price of corn, that of every sort of animal food, so it as やむを得ず lowers that of, I believe, every sort of vegetable food. It raises the price of animal food; because a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the land which produces it, 存在 （判決などを）下すd fit for producing corn, must afford to the landlord and 農業者 the rent and 利益（をあげる） of corn-land. It lowers the price of vegetable food; because, by 増加するing the fertility of the land, it 増加するs its 豊富. The 改良s of 農業, too, introduce many sorts of vegetable food, which, 要求するing いっそう少なく land and not more 労働 than corn, come much cheaper to market. Such are potatoes and maize, or what is called Indian corn, the two most important 改良s which the 農業 of Europe, perhaps, which Europe itself has received from the 広大な／多数の／重要な 拡張 of its 商業 and 航海. Many sorts of vegetable food, besides, which in the rude 明言する／公表する of 農業 are 限定するd to the kitchen-garden, and raised only by the spade, come in its 改善するd 明言する／公表する to be introduced into ありふれた fields, and to be raised by the plough: such as turnips, carrots, cabbages, etc. If in the 進歩 of 改良, therefore, the real price of one 種類 of food やむを得ず rises, that of another as やむを得ず 落ちるs, and it becomes a 事柄 of more nicety to 裁判官 how far the rise in the one may be 補償するd by the 落ちる in the other. When the real price of butcher's meat has once got to its 高さ (which, with regard to every sort, except, perhaps, that of hogs' flesh, it seems to have done through a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of England more than a century ago), any rise which can afterwards happen in that of any other sort of animal food cannot much 影響する／感情 the circumstances of the inferior 階級s of people. The circumstances of the poor through a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of England cannot surely be so much 苦しめるd by any rise in the price of poultry, fish, wild-fowl, or venison, as they must be relieved by the 落ちる in that of potatoes.

In the 現在の season of scarcity the high price of corn no 疑問 苦しめるs the poor. But in times of 穏健な plenty, when corn is at its ordinary or 普通の／平均（する） price, the natural rise in the price of any other sort of rude produce cannot much 影響する／感情 them. They 苦しむ more, perhaps, by the 人工的な rise which has been occasioned by 税金s in the price of some 製造（する）d 商品／必需品s; as of salt, soap, leather, candles, malt, beer, and ale, etc.

There are, indeed, a few 製造（する）s in which the necessary rise in the real price of the rude 構成要素s will more than 補償する all the advantages which 改良 can introduce into the 死刑執行 of the work. In carpenters' and joiners' work, and in the coarser sort of 閣僚 work, the necessary rise in the real price of barren 木材／素質, in consequence of the 改良 of land, will more than 補償する all the advantages which can be derived from the best 機械／機構, the greatest dexterity, and the most proper 分割 and 配当 of work.

But in all 事例／患者s in which the real price of the rude 構成要素s either does not rise at all, or does not rise very much, that of the 製造（する）d 商品／必需品 沈むs very かなり.

This diminution of price has, in the course of the 現在の and 先行する century, been most remarkable in those 製造（する）s of which the 構成要素s are the coarser metals. A better movement of a watch, that about the middle of the last century could have been bought for twenty 続けざまに猛撃するs, may now perhaps be had for twenty shillings. In the work of cutiers and locksmiths, in all the toys which are made of the coarser metals, and in all those goods which are 一般的に known by the 指名する of Birmingham and Sheffield ware, there has been, during the same period, a very 広大な／多数の／重要な 削減 of price, though not altogether so 広大な／多数の／重要な as in watch-work. It has, however, been 十分な to astonish the workmen of every other part of Europe, who in many 事例／患者s 認める that they can produce no work of equal goodness for 二塁打, or even for ３倍になる the price. There are perhaps no 製造（する）s in which the 分割 of 労働 can be carried その上の, or in which the 機械／機構 雇うd 収容する／認めるs of a greater variety of 改良s, than those of which the 構成要素s are the coarser metals.

In the 着せる／賦与するing 製造（する） there has, during the same period, been no such sensible 削減 of price. The price of superfine cloth, I have been 保証するd, on the contrary, has, within these five-and-twenty or thirty years, risen somewhat in 割合 to its 質; 借りがあるing, it was said, to a かなりの rise in the price of the 構成要素, which consists altogether of Spanish wool. That of the Yorkshire cloth, which is made altogether of English wool, is said indeed, during the course of the 現在の century, to have fallen a good 取引，協定 in 割合 to its 質. 質, however, is so very disputable a 事柄 that I look upon all （警察などへの）密告，告訴（状） of this 肉親，親類d as somewhat uncertain. In the 着せる／賦与するing 製造（する）, the 分割 of 労働 is nearly the same now as it was a century ago, and the 機械／機構 雇うd is not very different. There may, however, have been some small 改良s in both, which may have occasioned some 削減 of price.

But the 削減 will appear much more sensible and 否定できない if we compare the price of this 製造（する） in the 現在の times with what it was in a much remoter period, に向かって the end of the fifteenth century, when the 労働 was probably much いっそう少なく subdivided, and the 機械／機構 雇うd much more imperfect, than it is at 現在の.

In 1487, 存在 the 4th of Henry VII, it was 制定するd that "whosoever shall sell by 小売 a 幅の広い yard of the finest scarlet 穀物d, or of other 穀物d cloth of the finest making, above sixteen shillings, shall 没収される forty shillings for every yard so sold." Sixteen shillings, therefore, 含む／封じ込めるing about the same 量 of silver as four-and-twenty shillings of our 現在の money, was, at that time, reckoned not an 不当な price for a yard of the finest cloth; and as this is a sumptuary 法律, such cloth, it is probable, had usually been sold somewhat dearer. A guinea may be reckoned the highest price in the 現在の times. Even though the 質 of the cloths, therefore, should be supposed equal, and that of the 現在の times is most probably much superior, yet, even upon this supposition, the money price of the finest cloth appears to have been かなり 減ずるd since the end of the fifteenth century. But its real price has been much more 減ずるd. Six shillings and eightpence was then, and long afterwards, reckoned the 普通の／平均（する） price of a ４半期/4分の1 of wheat. Sixteen shillings, therefore, was the price of two ４半期/4分の1s and more than three bushels of wheat. Valuing a ４半期/4分の1 of wheat in the 現在の times at eight-and-twenty shillings, the real price of a yard of 罰金 cloth must, in those times, have been equal to at least three 続けざまに猛撃するs six shillings and sixpence of our 現在の money. The man who bought it must have parted with the 命令（する） of a 量 of 労働 and subsistence equal to what that sum would 購入（する） in the 現在の times.

The 削減 in the real price of the coarse 製造（する）, though かなりの, has not been so 広大な／多数の／重要な as in that of the 罰金.

In 1643, 存在 the 3rd of Edward IV, it was 制定するd that "no servant in husbandry, nor ありふれた labourer, nor servant to any artificer 住むing out of a city or burgh shall use or wear in their 着せる／賦与するing any cloth above two shillings the 幅の広い yard." In the 3rd of Edward IV, two shillings 含む／封じ込めるd very nearly the same 量 of silver as four of our 現在の money. But the Yorkshire cloth which is now sold at four shillings the yard is probably much superior to any that was then made for the wearing of the very poorest order of ありふれた servants. Even the money price of their 着せる／賦与するing, therefore, may, in 割合 to the 質, be somewhat cheaper in the 現在の than it was in those 古代の times. The real price is certainly a good 取引，協定 cheaper. Tenpence was then reckoned what is called the 穏健な and reasonable price of a bushel of wheat. Two shillings, therefore, was the price of two bushels and 近づく two つつく／ペックs of wheat, which in the 現在の times, at three shillings and sixpence the bushel, would be 価値（がある） eight shillings and ninepence. For a yard of this cloth the poor servant must have parted with the 力／強力にする of 購入（する）ing a 量 of subsistence equal to what eight shillings and ninepence would 購入（する） in the 現在の times. This is a sumptuary 法律 too, 抑制するing the 高級な and extravagance of the poor. Their 着せる／賦与するing, therefore, had 一般的に been much more expensive.

The same order of people are, by the same 法律, 禁じるd from wearing 靴下／だます, of which the price should 越える fourteenpence the pair, equal to about eight-and-twentypence of our 現在の money. But fourteenpence was in those times the price of a bushel and 近づく two つつく／ペックs of wheat, which, in the 現在の times, at three and sixpence the bushel, would cost five shillings and threepence. We should in the 現在の times consider this as a very high price for a pair of stockings, to a servant of the poorest and lowest order. He must, however, in those times have paid what was really 同等（の） to this price for them.

In the time of Edward IV the art of knitting stockings was probably not known in any part of Europe. Their 靴下／だます were made of ありふれた cloth, which may have been one of the 原因（となる）s of their dearness. The first person that wore stockings in England is said to have been Queen Elizabeth. She received them as a 現在の from the Spanish 外交官／大使.

Both in the coarse and in the 罰金 woollen 製造（する）, the 機械／機構 雇うd was much more imperfect in those 古代の than it is in the 現在の times. It has since received three very 資本／首都 改良s, besides, probably, many smaller ones of which it may be difficult to ascertain either the number or the importance. The three 資本／首都 改良s are: first, the 交流 of the 激しく揺する and spindle for the spinning-wheel, which, with the same 量 of 労働, will 成し遂げる more than 二塁打 the 量 of work. Secondly, the use of several very ingenious machines which 容易にする and abridge in a still greater 割合 the winding of the worsted and woollen yarn, or the proper 協定 of the warp and woof before they are put into the ぼんやり現れる; an 操作／手術 which, previous to the 発明 of those machines, must have been 極端に tedious and troublesome. Thirdly, the 雇用 of the 十分なing mill for thickening the cloth, instead of treading it in water. Neither 勝利，勝つd nor water mills of any 肉親，親類d were known in England so 早期に as the beginning of the sixteenth century, nor, so far as I know, in any other part of Europe north of the アルプス山脈. They had been introduced into Italy some time before.

The consideration of these circumstances may, perhaps, in some 手段 explain to us why the real price both of the coarse and of the 罰金 製造（する） was so much higher in those 古代の than it is in the 現在の times. It cost a greater 量 of 労働 to bring the goods to market. When they were brought thither, therefore, they must have 購入（する）d or 交流d for the price of a greater 量.

The coarse 製造（する） probably was, in those 古代の times, carried on in England, in the same manner as it always has been in countries where arts and 製造（する）s are in their 幼少／幼藍期. It was probably a 世帯 製造（する）, in which every different part of the work was occasionally 成し遂げるd by all the different members of almost every 私的な family; but so as to be their work only when they had nothing else to do, and not to be the 主要な／長／主犯 商売／仕事 from which any of them derived the greater part of their subsistence. The work which is 成し遂げるd in this manner, it has already been 観察するd, comes always much cheaper to market than that which is the 主要な／長／主犯 or 単独の 基金 of the workman's subsistence. The 罰金 製造（する）, on the other 手渡す, was not in those times carried on in England, but in the rich and 商業の country of Flanders; and it was probably 行為／行うd then, in the same manner as now, by people who derived the whole, or the 主要な／長／主犯 part of their subsistence from it. It was, besides, a foreign 製造（する）, and must have paid some 義務, the 古代の custom of tonnage and poundage at least, to the king. This 義務, indeed, would not probably be very 広大な／多数の／重要な. It was not then the 政策 of Europe to 抑制する, by high 義務s, the 輸入 of foreign 製造（する）s, but rather to encourage it, in order that merchants might be enabled to 供給（する）, at as 平易な a 率 as possible, the 広大な／多数の／重要な men with the conveniences and 高級なs which they 手配中の，お尋ね者, and which the 産業 of their own country could not afford them.

The consideration of these circumstances may perhaps in some 手段 explain to us why, in those 古代の times, the real price of the coarse 製造（する） was, in 割合 to that of the 罰金, so much lower than in the 現在の times.

The 拡張 of 改良 and cultivation tends to raise it 直接／まっすぐに. The landlord's 株 of the produce やむを得ず 増加するs with the 増加する of the produce.

That rise in the real price of those parts of the rude produce of land, which is first the 影響 of 延長するd 改良 and cultivation, and afterwards the 原因（となる） of their 存在 still その上の 延長するd, the rise in the price of cattle, for example, tends too to raise the rent of land 直接／まっすぐに, and in a still greater 割合. The real value of the landlord's 株, his real 命令（する） of the 労働 of other people, not only rises with the real value of the produce, but the 割合 of his 株 to the whole produce rises with it. That produce, after the rise in its real price, 要求するs no more 労働 to collect it than before. A smaller 割合 of it will, therefore, be 十分な to 取って代わる, with the ordinary 利益（をあげる）, the 在庫／株 which 雇うs that 労働. A greater 割合 of it must, その結果, belong to the landlord.

All those 改良s in the 生産力のある 力／強力にするs of 労働, which tend 直接／まっすぐに to 減ずる the real price of 製造（する）s, tend 間接に to raise the real rent of land. The landlord 交流s that part of his rude produce, which is over and above his own 消費, or what comes to the same thing, the price of that part of it, for 製造（する）d produce. Whatever 減ずるs the real price of the latter, raises that of the former. An equal 量 of the former becomes その為に 同等（の） to a greater 量 of the latter; and the landlord is enabled to 購入（する） a greater 量 of the conveniences, ornaments, or 高級なs, which he has occasion for.

Every 増加する in the real wealth of the society, every 増加する in the 量 of useful 労働 雇うd within it, tends 間接に to raise the real rent of land. A 確かな 割合 of this 労働 自然に goes to the land. A greater number of men and cattle are 雇うd in its cultivation, the produce 増加するs with the 増加する of the 在庫／株 which is thus 雇うd in raising it, and the rent 増加するs with the produce.

The contrary circumstances, the neglect of cultivation and 改良, the 落ちる in the real price of any part of the rude produce of land, the rise in the real price of 製造（する）s from the decay of 製造業の art and 産業, the declension of the real wealth of the society, all tend, on the other 手渡す, to lower the real rent of land, to 減ずる the real wealth of the landlord, to 減らす his 力／強力にする of 購入（する）ing either the 労働, or the produce of the 労働 of other people.

The whole 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of every country, or what comes to the same thing, the whole price of that 年次の produce, 自然に divides itself, it has already been 観察するd, into three parts; the rent of land, the 給料 of 労働, and the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株; and 構成するs a 歳入 to three different orders of people; to those who live by rent, to those who live by 給料, and to those who live by 利益（をあげる）. These are the three 広大な／多数の／重要な, 初めの, and 選挙権を持つ／選挙人 orders of every civilised society, from whose 歳入 that of every other order is 最終的に derived.

The 利益／興味 of the first of those three 広大な／多数の／重要な orders, it appears from what has been just now said, is 厳密に and inseparably connected with the general 利益／興味 of the society. Whatever either 促進するs or 妨害するs the one, やむを得ず 促進するs or 妨害するs the other. When the public 審議する／熟考するs 関心ing any 規則 of 商業 or police, the proprietors of land never can 誤って導く it, with a 見解（をとる） to 促進する the 利益／興味 of their own particular order; at least, if they have any tolerable knowledge of that 利益／興味. They are, indeed, too often 欠陥のある in this tolerable knowledge. They are the only one of the three orders whose 歳入 costs them neither 労働 nor care, but comes to them, as it were, of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える, and 独立した・無所属 of any 計画（する） or 事業／計画（する） of their own. That indolence, which is the natural 影響 of the 緩和する and 安全 of their 状況／情勢, （判決などを）下すs them too often, not only ignorant, but incapable of that 使用／適用 of mind which is necessary ーするために 予知する and understand the consequences of any public 規則.

The 利益／興味 of the second order, that of those who live by 給料, is as 厳密に connected with the 利益／興味 of the society as that of the first. The 給料 of the labourer, it has already been shown, are never so high as when the 需要・要求する for 労働 is continually rising, or when the 量 雇うd is every year 増加するing かなり. When this real wealth of the society becomes 静止している, his 給料 are soon 減ずるd to what is barely enough to enable him to bring up a family, or to continue the race of labourers. When the society 拒絶する／低下するs, they 落ちる even below this. The order of proprietors may, perhaps, 伸び（る） more by the 繁栄 of the society than that of labourers: but there is no order that 苦しむs so cruelly from its 拒絶する／低下する. But though the 利益／興味 of the labourer is 厳密に connected with that of the society, he is incapable either of comprehending that 利益／興味 or of understanding its 関係 with his own. His 条件 leaves him no time to receive the necessary （警察などへの）密告，告訴（状）, and his education and habits are 一般的に such as to （判決などを）下す him unfit to 裁判官 even though he was fully 知らせるd. In the public 審議s, therefore, his 発言する／表明する is little heard and いっそう少なく regarded, except upon some particular occasions, when his clamour is animated, 始める，決める on and supported by his 雇用者s, not for his, but their own particular 目的s.

His 雇用者s 構成する the third order, that of those who live by 利益（をあげる）. It is the 在庫／株 that is 雇うd for the sake of 利益（をあげる） which puts into 動議 the greater part of the useful 労働 of every society. The 計画（する）s and 事業／計画（する）s of the 雇用者s of 在庫／株 規制する and direct all the most important 操作／手術s of 労働, and 利益（をあげる） is the end 提案するd by all those 計画（する）s and 事業／計画（する）s. But the 率 of 利益（をあげる） does not, like rent and 給料, rise with the 繁栄 and 落ちる with the declension of the society. On the contrary, it is 自然に low in rich and high in poor countries, and it is always highest in the countries which are going fastest to 廃虚. The 利益／興味 of this third order, therefore, has not the same 関係 with the general 利益／興味 of the society as that of the other two. Merchants and master 製造業者s are, in this order, the two classes of people who 一般的に 雇う the largest 資本／首都s, and who by their wealth draw to themselves the greatest 株 of the public consideration. As during their whole lives they are engaged in 計画（する）s and 事業／計画（する）s, they have frequently more acuteness of understanding than the greater part of country gentlemen. As their thoughts, however, are 一般的に 演習d rather about the 利益／興味 of their own particular 支店 of 商売／仕事, than about that of the society, their judgment, even when given with the greatest candour (which it has not been upon every occasion) is much more to be depended upon with regard to the former of those two 反対するs than with regard to the latter. Their 優越 over the country gentleman is not so much in their knowledge of the public 利益／興味, as in their having a better knowledge of their own 利益／興味 than he has of his. It is by this superior knowledge of their own 利益／興味 that they have frequently 課すd upon his generosity, and 説得するd him to give up both his own 利益／興味 and that of the public, from a very simple but honest 有罪の判決 that their 利益／興味, and not his, was the 利益／興味 of the public. The 利益／興味 of the 取引，協定 rs, however, in any particular 支店 of 貿易（する） or 製造（する）s, is always in some 尊敬（する）・点s different from, and even opposite to, that of the public. To 広げる the market and to 狭くする the 競争, is always the 利益／興味 of the 売買業者s. To 広げる the market may frequently be agreeable enough to the 利益／興味 of the public; but to 狭くする the 競争 must always be against it, and can serve only to enable the 売買業者s, by raising their 利益（をあげる）s above what they 自然に would be, to 徴収する, for their own 利益, an absurd 税金 upon the 残り／休憩（する） of their fellow-国民s. The 提案 of any new 法律 or 規則 of 商業 which comes from this order ought always to be listened to with 広大な／多数の／重要な 警戒, and ought never to be 可決する・採択するd till after having been long and carefully 診察するd, not only with the most scrupulous, but with the most 怪しげな attention. It comes from an order of men whose 利益／興味 is never 正確に／まさに the same with that of the public, who have 一般に an 利益／興味 to deceive and even to 抑圧する the public, and who accordingly have, upon many occasions, both deceived and 抑圧するd it.

               TABLES REFERRED TO IN CHAPTER 11, PART 3

           Price of the       普通の／平均（する） of       The 普通の／平均（する） Price
            ４半期/4分の1 of       the different       of each Year in
Years         Wheat            Prices of           Money of the
 XII        each Year        the same Year         現在の Times

          L    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.

1202      -   12     -        -     -     -        1    16     -

1205      -   12     -        -    13     5        2     -     3
          -   13     4
          -   15     -

1223      -   12     -        -     -     -        1    16     -
1237      -    3     4        -     -     -        -    10     -
1243      -    2     -        -     -     -        -     6     -
1244      -    2     -        -     -     -        -     6     -
1246      -   16     -        -     -     -        2     8     -
1247      -   13     4        -     -     -        2     -     -
1257      1    4     -        -     -     -        3    12     -

1258      1    -     -        -    17     -        2    11     -
          -   15     -
          -   16     -

1270      4   16     -        5    12     -       16    16     -
          6    8     -

1286      -    2     8        -     9     4        1     8     -
          -   16     -
                                                 ---------------
                                        Total    L35     9     3
                                                 ---------------
                                普通の／平均（する） Price     L2    19     1 1/4


           Price of the       普通の／平均（する） of       The 普通の／平均（する） Price
            ４半期/4分の1 of       the different       of each Year in
Years         Wheat            Prices of           Money of the
 XII        each Year        the same Year         現在の Times

          L    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.

1287      -    3     4        -     -     -        -    10     -

1288      -    -     8        -     3     - 1/4    -     9     - 3/4
          -    1     -
          -    1     4
          -    1     6
          -    1     8
          -    2     -
          -    3     4
          -    9     4

1289      -   12     -        -    10     1 3/4    1    10     4 1/2
          -    6     -
          -    2     -
          -   10     8
          1    -     -

1290      -   16     -        -     -     -        2     8     -
1294      -   16     -        -     -     -        2     8     -
1302      -    4     -        -     -     -        -    12     -
1309      -    7     2        -     -     -        1     1     6
1315      1    -     -        -     -     -        3     -     -

1316      1    -     -        1    10     6        4    11     6
          1   10     -
          1   12     -
          2    -     -

1317      2    4     -        1    19     6        5    18     6
          -   14     -
          2   13     -
          4    -     -
          -    6     8

1336      -    2     -        -     -     -        -     6     -
1338      -    3     4        -     -     -        -    10     -
                                                 ---------------
                                        Total    L23     4    11 1/4
                                                 ---------------
                                普通の／平均（する） Price     L1    18     8


           Price of the       普通の／平均（する） of       The 普通の／平均（する） Price
            ４半期/4分の1 of       the different       of each Year in
Years         Wheat            Prices of           Money of the
 XII        each Year        the same Year         現在の Times

          L    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.

1339      -    9     -        -     -     -        1     7     -
1349      -    2     -        -     -     -        -     5     2
1359      1    6     8        -     -     -        3     2     2
1361      -    2     -        -     -     -        -     4     8
1363      -   15     -        -     -     -        1    15     -

1369      1    -     -        1     2     -        2     9     4
          1    4     -

1379      -    4     -        -     -     -        -     9     4
1387      -    2     -        -     -     -        -     4     8

1390      -   13     4        -    14     5        1    13     7
          -   14     -
          -   16     -

1401      -   16     -        -     -     -        1    17     4

1407      -    4     4 3/4    -     3    10        -     8    11
          -    3     4

1416      -   16     -        -     -     -        1    12     -
                                                 ---------------
                                        Total    L15     9     4
                                                 ---------------
                                普通の／平均（する） Price     L1     5     9 1/3


           Price of the       普通の／平均（する） of       The 普通の／平均（する） Price
            ４半期/4分の1 of       the different       of each Year in
Years         Wheat            Prices of           Money of the
 XII        each Year        the same Year         現在の Times

          L    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.

1423      -    8     -        -     -     -        -    16     -
1425      -    4     -        -     -     -        -     8     -
1434      1    6     8        -     -     -        2    13     4
1435      -    5     4        -     -     -        -    10     8

1439      1    -     -        1     3     4        2     6     8
          1    6     8

1440      1    4     -        -     -     -        2     8     -

1444      -    4     4        -     4     2        -     8     4
          -    4     -

1445      -    4     6        -     -     -        -     9     -
1447      -    8     -        -     -     -        -    16     -
1448      -    6     8        -     -     -        -    13     4
1449      -    5     -        -     -     -        -    10     -
1452      -    8     -        -     -     -        -    16     -
                                                 ---------------
                                        Total    L12    15     4
                                                 ---------------
                                普通の／平均（する） Price     L1     1     3 1/2


           Price of the       普通の／平均（する） of       The 普通の／平均（する） Price
            ４半期/4分の1 of       the different       of each Year in
Years         Wheat            Prices of           Money of the
 XII        each Year        the same Year         現在の Times

          L    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.

1453      -    5     4        -     -     -        -    10     8
1455      -    1     2        -     -     -        -     2     4
1457      -    7     8        -     -     -        -    15     4
1459      -    5     -        -     -     -        -    10     -
1460      -    8     -        -     -     -        -    16     -

1463      -    2     -        -     1    10        -     3     8
          -    1     8

1464      -    6     8        -     -     -        -    10     -
1486      1    4     -        -     -     -        1    17     -
1491      -   14     8        -     -     -        1     2     -
1494      -    4     -        -     -     -        -     6     -
1495      -    3     4        -     -     -        -     5     -
1497      1    -     -        -     -     -        1    11     -
                                                  --------------
                                        Total     L8     9     -
                                                  --------------
                                普通の／平均（する） Price      -    14     1


           Price of the       普通の／平均（する） of       The 普通の／平均（する） Price
            ４半期/4分の1 of       the different       of each Year in
Years         Wheat            Prices of           Money of the
 XII        each Year        the same Year         現在の Times

          L    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.

1499      -    4     -        -     -     -        -     6     -
1504      -    5     8        -     -     -        -     8     6
1521      1    -     -        -     -     -        1    10     -
1551      -    8     -        -     -     -        -     2     -
1553      -    8     -        -     -     -        -     8     -
1554      -    8     -        -     -     -        -     8     -
1555      -    8     -        -     -     -        -     8     -
1556      -    8     -        -     -     -        -     8     -

1557      -    4     -        -    17     8 1/2    -    17     8 1/2
          -    5     -
          -    8     -
          2   13     4

1558      -    8     -        -     -     -        -     8     -
1559      -    8     -        -     -     -        -     8     -
1560      -    8     -        -     -     -        -     8     -
                                                  --------------
                                        Total     L6     0     2 1/2
                                                  --------------
                                普通の／平均（する） Price      -    10     - 5/12


           Price of the       普通の／平均（する） of       The 普通の／平均（する） Price
            ４半期/4分の1 of       the different       of each Year in
Years         Wheat            Prices of           Money of the
 XII        each Year        the same Year         現在の Times

          L    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.       L.    s.    d.

1561      -    8     -        -     -     -        -     8     -
1562      -    8     -        -     -     -        -     8     -

1574      2   16     -        2     -     -        2     -     -
          1    4     -

1587      3    4     -        -     -     -        3     4     -
1594      2   16     -        -     -     -        2    16     -
1595      2   13     -        -     -     -        2    13     -
1596      4    -     -        -     -     -        4     -     -

1597      5    4     -        4    12     -        4    12     -
          4    -     -

1598      2   16     8        -     -     -        2    16     8
1599      1   19     2        -     -     -        1    19     2
1600      1   17     8        -     -     -        1    17     8
1601      1   14    10        -     -     -        1    14    10
                                                 ---------------
                                        Total    L28     9     4
                                                 ---------------
                                普通の／平均（する） Price     L2     7     5 1/3


   Prices of the ４半期/4分の1 of nine Bushels of the best or highest
  定価つきの Wheat at Windsor Market, on Lady-day and Michaelmas, from
   1595 to 1764, both inclusive; the Price of each Year 存在 the
     medium between the highest Prices of those Two Market Days.

   Years                            Years
                L.    s.    d.                   L.    s.    d.

    1595   -    2     0     0        1621   -    1    10     4
    1596   -    2     8     0        1622   -    2    18     8
    1597   -    3     9     6        1623   -    2    12     0
    1598   -    2    16     8        1624   -    2     8     0
    1599   -    1    19     2        1625   -    2    12     0
    1600   -    1    17     8        1626   -    2     9     4
    1601   -    1    14    10        1627   -    1    16     0
    1602   -    1     9     4        1628   -    1     8     0
    1603   -    1    15     4        1629   -    2     2     0
    1604   -    1    10     8        1630   -    2    15     8
    1605   -    1    15    10        1631   -    3     8     0
    1606   -    1    13     0        1632   -    2    13     4
    1607   -    1    16     8        1633   -    2    18     0
    1608   -    2    16     8        1634   -    2    16     0
    1609   -    2    10     0        1635   -    2    16     0
    1610   -    1    15    10        1636   -    2    16     8
    1611   -    1    18     8                   --------------
    1612   -    2     2     4               16) 40     0     0
    1613   -    2     8     8                   --------------
    1614   -    2     1     8 1/2               L2    10     0
    1615   -    1    18     8
    1616   -    2     0     4
    1617   -    2     8     8
    1618   -    2     6     8
    1619   -    1    15     4
    1620   -    1    10     4
               --------------
           26) 54     0     6 1/2
               --------------
               L2     1     6 9/12


                  Wheat per                        Wheat per
   Years           ４半期/4分の1          Years           ４半期/4分の1

                L.    s.    d.                   L.    s.    d.

    1637   -    2    13     0     Brought over  79    14    10
    1638   -    2    17     4        1671   -    2     2     0
    1639   -    2     4    10        1672   -    2     1     0
    1640   -    2     4     8        1673   -    2     6     8
    1641   -    2     8     0        1674   -    3     8     8
    1642   -    0     0     0*       1675   -    3     4     8
    1643   -    0     0     0        1676   -    1    18     0
    1644   -    0     0     0        1677   -    2     2     0
    1645   -    0     0     0        1678   -    2    19     0
    1646   -    2     8     0        1679   -    3     0     0
    1647   -    3    13     8        1680   -    2     5     0
    1648   -    4     5     0        1681   -    2     6     8
    1649   -    4     0     0        1682   -    2     4     0
    1650   -    3    16     8        1683   -    2     0     0
    1651   -    3    13     4        1684   -    2     4     0
    1652   -    2     9     6        1685   -    2     6     8
    1653   -    1    15     6        1686   -    1    14     0
    1654   -    1     6     0        1687   -    1     5     2
    1655   -    1    13     4        1688   -    2     6     0
    1656   -    2     3     0        1689   -    1    10     0
    1657   -    2     6     8        1690   -    1    14     8
    1658   -    3     5     0        1691   -    1    14     0
    1659   -    3     6     0        1692   -    2     6     8
    1660   -    2    16     6        1693   -    3     7     8
    1661   -    3    10     0        1694   -    3     4     0
    1662   -    3    14     0        1695   -    2    13     0
    1663   -    2    17     0        1696   -    3    11     0
    1664   -    2     0     6        1697   -    3     0     0
    1665   -    2     9     4        1698   -    3     8     4
    1666   -    1    16     0        1699   -    3     4     0
    1667   -    1    16     0        1700   -    2     0     0
    1668   -    2     0     0                  ---------------
    1669   -    2     4     4             60)  153     1     8
    1670   -    2     1     8                  ---------------
               --------------                   L2    11     0 1/3
  Carry over  L79    14    10

  *Wanting in the account. The year 1646 供給（する）d by Bishop Fleetwood.


                  Wheat per                        Wheat per
   Years           ４半期/4分の1          Years           ４半期/4分の1

                L.    s.    d.                   L.    s.    d.

    1701   -    1    17     8     Brought over  69     8     8
    1702   -    1     9     6        1734   -    1    18    10
    1703   -    1    16     0        1735   -    2     3     0
    1704   -    2     6     6        1736   -    2     0     4
    1705   -    1    10     0        1737   -    1    18     0
    1706   -    1     6     0        1738   -    1    15     6
    1707   -    1     8     6        1739   -    1    18     6
    1708   -    2     1     6        1740   -    2    10     8
    1709   -    3    18     6        1741   -    2     6     8
    1710   -    3    18     0        1742   -    1    14     0
    1711   -    2    14     0        1743   -    1     4    10
    1712   -    2     6     4        1744   -    1     4    10
    1713   -    2    11     0        1745   -    1     7     6
    1714   -    2    10     4        1746   -    1    19     0
    1715   -    2     3     0        1747   -    1    14    10
    1716   -    2     8     0        1748   -    1    17     0
    1717   -    2     5     8        1749   -    1    17     0
    1718   -    1    18    10        1750   -    1    12     6
    1719   -    1    15     0        1751   -    1    18     6
    1720   -    1    17     0        1752   -    2     1    10
    1721   -    1    17     6        1753   -    2     4     8
    1722   -    1    16     0        1754   -    1    14     8
    1723   -    1    14     8        1755   -    1    13    10
    1724   -    1    17     0        1756   -    2     5     3
    1725   -    2     8     6        1757   -    3     0     0
    1726   -    2     6     0        1758   -    2    10     0
    1727   -    2     2     0        1759   -    1    19    10
    1728   -    2    14     6        1760   -    1    16     6
    1729   -    2     6    10        1761   -    1    10     3
    1730   -    1    16     6        1762   -    1    19     0
    1731   -    1    12    10        1763   -    2     0     9
    1732   -    1     6     8        1764   -    2     6     9
    1733   -    1     8     4                  ---------------
               --------------             64)  129    13     6
  Carry over  L69     8     8                  ---------------
                                                L2     0     6 9/32


   Years                            Years
                L.    s.    d.                   L.    s.    d.

    1731   -    1    12    10        1741   -    2     6     8
    1732   -    1     6     8        1742   -    1    14     0
    1733   -    1     8     4        1743   -    1     4    10
    1734   -    1    18    10        1744   -    1     4    10
    1735   -    2     3     0        1745   -    1     7     6
    1736   -    2     0     4        1746   -    1    19     0
    1737   -    1    18     0        1747   -    1    14    10
    1738   -    1    15     6        1748   -    1    17     0
    1739   -    1    18     6        1749   -    1    17     0
    1740   -    2    10     8        1750   -    1    12     6
               --------------                   --------------
          10)  18    12     8              10)  16    18     2
               --------------                  ---------------
               L1    17     3 1/5               L1    13     9 4/5