• Introduction and 計画（する） of the Work

  調書をとる／予約する One

• I. Of the 分割 of 労働
  
• II. Of the 原則 which gives Occasion to the 分割 of 労働
  
• III. That the 分割 of 労働 is 限られた／立憲的な by the Extent of the Market
  
• IV. Of the Origin and Use of Money
  
• V. Of the real and 名目上の Price of 商品／必需品s, or of their Price in 労働, and their Price in Money
  
• VI. Of the 構成要素 Parts of the Price of 商品／必需品s.
  
• VII. Of the natural and market Price of 商品／必需品s
  
• VIII. Of the 給料 of 労働
  
• IX. Of the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株
  
• X. Of 給料 and 利益（をあげる） in the different 雇用s of 労働 and 在庫／株

Introduction and 計画（する） of the Work

（許可，名誉などを）与えるing therefore as this produce, or what is 購入（する）d with it, 耐えるs a greater or smaller 割合 to the number of those who are to 消費する it, the nation will be better or worse 供給（する）d with all the necessaries and conveniences for which it has occasion.

But this 割合 must in every nation be 規制するd by two different circumstances; first, by the 技術, dexterity, and judgment with which its 労働 is 一般に 適用するd; and, secondly, by the 割合 between the number of those who are 雇うd in useful 労働, and that of those who are not so 雇うd. Whatever be the 国／地域, 気候, or extent of 領土 of any particular nation, the 豊富 or scantiness of its 年次の 供給（する） must, in that particular 状況／情勢, depend upon those two circumstances.

The 豊富 or scantiness of this 供給（する）, too, seems to depend more upon the former of those two circumstances than upon the latter. の中で the savage nations of hunters and fishers, every individual who is able to work, is more or いっそう少なく 雇うd in useful 労働, and endeavours to 供給する, 同様に as he can, the necessaries and conveniences of life, for himself, or such of his family or tribe as are either too old, or too young, or too infirm to go a 追跡（する）ing and fishing. Such nations, however, are so miserably poor that, from mere want, they are frequently 減ずるd, or, at least, think themselves 減ずるd, to the necessity いつかs of 直接／まっすぐに destroying, and いつかs of abandoning their 幼児s, their old people, and those afflicted with ぐずぐず残る 病気s, to 死なせる／死ぬ with hunger, or to be devoured by wild beasts. の中で civilised and 栄えるing nations, on the contrary, though a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of people do not 労働 at all, many of whom 消費する the produce of ten times, frequently of a hundred times more 労働 than the greater part of those who work; yet the produce of the whole 労働 of the society is so 広大な／多数の／重要な that all are often abundantly 供給（する）d, and a workman, even of the lowest and poorest order, if he is frugal and industrious, may enjoy a greater 株 of the necessaries and conveniences of life than it is possible for any savage to acquire.

The 原因（となる）s of this 改良, in the 生産力のある 力／強力にするs of 労働, and the order, によれば which its produce is 自然に 分配するd の中で the different 階級s and 条件s of men in the society, make the 支配する of the first 調書をとる／予約する of this 調査.

Whatever be the actual 明言する／公表する of the 技術, dexterity, and judgment with which 労働 is 適用するd in any nation, the 豊富 or scantiness of its 年次の 供給（する） must depend, during the continuance of that 明言する／公表する, upon the 割合 between the number of those who are 毎年 雇うd in useful 労働, and that of those who are not so 雇うd. The number of useful and 生産力のある labourers, it will hereafter appear, is everywhere in 割合 to the 量 of 資本／首都 在庫／株 which is 雇うd in setting them to work, and to the particular way in which it is so 雇うd. The second 調書をとる／予約する, therefore, 扱う／治療するs of the nature of 資本／首都 在庫／株, of the manner in which it is 徐々に 蓄積するd, and of the different 量s of 労働 which it puts into 動議, によれば the different ways in which it is 雇うd.

Nations tolerably 井戸／弁護士席 前進するd as to 技術, dexterity, and judgment, in the 使用／適用 of 労働, have followed very different 計画（する）s in the general 行為／行う or direction of it; those 計画（する）s have not all been 平等に favourable to the greatness of its produce. The 政策 of some nations has given 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 激励 to the 産業 of the country; that of others to the 産業 of towns. 不十分な any nation has dealt 平等に and impartially with every sort of 産業. Since the downfall of the Roman empire, the 政策 of Europe has been more favourable to arts, 製造（する）s, and 商業, the 産業 of towns, than to 農業, the 産業 of the country. The circumstances which seem to have introduced and 設立するd this 政策 are explained in the third 調書をとる／予約する.

Though those different 計画（する）s were, perhaps, first introduced by the 私的な 利益／興味s and prejudices of particular orders of men, without any regard to, or foresight of, their consequences upon the general 福利事業 of the society; yet they have given occasion to very different theories of political economy; of which some magnify the importance of that 産業 which is carried on in towns, others of that which is carried on in the country. Those theories have had a かなりの 影響（力）, not only upon the opinions of men of learning, but upon the public 行為／行う of princes and 君主 明言する／公表するs. I have endeavoured, in the fourth 調書をとる／予約する, to explain, as fully and distinctly as I can, those different theories, and the 主要な／長／主犯 影響s which they have produced in different ages and nations.

To explain in what has consisted the 歳入 of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, or what has been the nature of those 基金s which, in different ages and nations, have 供給（する）d their 年次の 消費, is the 反対する of these four first 調書をとる／予約するs. The fifth and last 調書をとる／予約する 扱う／治療するs of the 歳入 of the 君主, or 連邦／共和国. In this 調書をとる／予約する I have endeavoured to show, first, what are the necessary expenses of the 君主, or 連邦／共和国; which of those expenses せねばならない be defrayed by the general 出資／貢献 of the whole society; and which of them by that of some particular part only, or of some particular members of it: secondly, what are the different methods in which the whole society may be made to 与える／捧げる に向かって defraying the expenses 現職の on the whole society, and what are the 主要な／長／主犯 advantages and inconveniences of each of those methods: and, thirdly and lastly, what are the 推論する／理由s and 原因（となる）s which have induced almost all modern 政府s to mortgage some part of this 歳入, or to 契約 負債s, and what have been the 影響s of those 負債s upon the real wealth, the 年次の produce of the land and 労働 of the society.

一時期／支部 I
Of the 分割 of 労働

The 影響s of the 分割 of 労働, in the general 商売／仕事 of society, will be more easily understood by considering in what manner it operates in some particular 製造（する）s. It is 一般的に supposed to be carried furthest in some very trifling ones; not perhaps that it really is carried その上の in them than in others of more importance: but in those trifling 製造（する）s which are 運命にあるd to 供給（する） the small wants of but a small number of people, the whole number of workmen must やむを得ず be small; and those 雇うd in every different 支店 of the work can often be collected into the same workhouse, and placed at once under the 見解（をとる） of the 観客. In those 広大な／多数の／重要な 製造（する）s, on the contrary, which are 運命にあるd to 供給（する） the 広大な／多数の／重要な wants of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, every different 支店 of the work 雇うs so 広大な／多数の／重要な a number of workmen that it is impossible to collect them all into the same workhouse. We can seldom see more, at one time, than those 雇うd in one 選び出す／独身 支店. Though in such 製造（する）s, therefore, the work may really be divided into a much greater number of parts than in those of a more trifling nature, the 分割 is not 近づく so obvious, and has accordingly been much いっそう少なく 観察するd.

To take an example, therefore, from a very trifling 製造（する）; but one in which the 分割 of 労働 has been very often taken notice of, the 貿易（する） of the pin-製造者; a workman not educated to this 商売／仕事 (which the 分割 of 労働 has （判決などを）下すd a 際立った 貿易（する）), nor 熟知させるd with the use of the 機械／機構 雇うd in it (to the 発明 of which the same 分割 of 労働 has probably given occasion), could 不十分な, perhaps, with his 最大の 産業, make one pin in a day, and certainly could not make twenty. But in the way in which this 商売／仕事 is now carried on, not only the whole work is a peculiar 貿易（する）, but it is divided into a number of 支店s, of which the greater part are likewise peculiar 貿易（する）s. One man draws out the wire, another straights it, a third 削減（する）s it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the 最高の，を越す for receiving, the 長，率いる; to make the 長，率いる 要求するs two or three 際立った 操作／手術s; to put it on is a peculiar 商売／仕事, to whiten the pins is another; it is even a 貿易（する） by itself to put them into the paper; and the important 商売／仕事 of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen 際立った 操作／手術s, which, in some manufactories, are all 成し遂げるd by 際立った 手渡すs, though in others the same man will いつかs 成し遂げる two or three of them. I have seen a small manufactory of this 肉親，親類d where ten men only were 雇うd, and where some of them その結果 成し遂げるd two or three 際立った 操作／手術s. But though they were very poor, and therefore but indifferently 融通するd with the necessary 機械／機構, they could, when they 発揮するd themselves, make の中で them about twelve 続けざまに猛撃するs of pins in a day. There are in a 続けざまに猛撃する 上向きs of four thousand pins of a middling size. Those ten persons, therefore, could make の中で them 上向きs of forty-eight thousand pins in a day. Each person, therefore, making a tenth part of forty-eight thousand pins, might be considered as making four thousand eight hundred pins in a day. But if they had all wrought 分かれて and 独立して, a nd without any of them having been educated to this peculiar 商売／仕事, they certainly could not each of them have made twenty, perhaps not one pin in a day; that is, certainly, not the two hundred and fortieth, perhaps not the four thousand eight hundredth part of what they are at 現在の 有能な of 成し遂げるing, in consequence of a proper 分割 and combination of their different 操作／手術s.

In every other art and 製造（する）, the 影響s of the 分割 of 労働 are 類似の to what they are in this very trifling one; though, in many of them, the 労働 can neither be so much subdivided, nor 減ずるd to so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 簡単 of 操作／手術. The 分割 of 労働, however, so far as it can be introduced, occasions, in every art, a proportionable 増加する of the 生産力のある 力／強力にするs of 労働. The 分離 of different 貿易（する）s and 雇用s from one another seems to have taken place in consequence of this advantage. This 分離, too, is 一般に called furthest in those countries which enjoy the highest degree of 産業 and 改良; what is the work of one man in a rude 明言する／公表する of society 存在 一般に that of several in an 改善するd one. In every 改善するd society, the 農業者 is 一般に nothing but a 農業者; the 製造業者, nothing but a 製造業者. The 労働, too, which is necessary to produce any one 完全にする 製造（する） is almost always divided の中で a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of 手渡すs. How many different 貿易（する）s are 雇うd in each 支店 of the linen and woollen 製造（する）s from the growers of the flax and the wool, to the bleachers and smoothers of the linen, or to the dyers and dressers of the cloth! The nature of 農業, indeed, does not 収容する／認める of so many subdivisions of 労働, nor of so 完全にする a 分離 of one 商売／仕事 from another, as 製造（する）s. It is impossible to separate so 完全に the 商売／仕事 of the grazier from that of the corn-農業者 as the 貿易（する） of the carpenter is 一般的に separated from that of the smith. The spinner is almost always a 際立った person from the weaver; but the ploughman, the harrower, the sower of the seed, and the reaper of the corn, are often the same. The occasions for those different sorts of 労働 returning with the different seasons of the year, it is impossible that one man should be 絶えず 雇うd in any one of them. This impossibility of making so 完全にする and entire a 分離 of all the different 支店s of 労働 雇うd in a griculture is perhaps the 推論する／理由 why the 改良 of the 生産力のある 力／強力にするs of 労働 in this art does not always keep pace with their 改良 in 製造（する）s. The most opulent nations, indeed, 一般に excel all their 隣人s in 農業 同様に as in 製造（する）s; but they are 一般的に more distinguished by their 優越 in the latter than in the former. Their lands are in general better cultivated, and having more 労働 and expense bestowed upon them, produce more in 割合 to the extent and natural fertility of the ground. But this 優越 of produce is seldom much more than in 割合 to the 優越 of 労働 and expense. In 農業, the 労働 of the rich country is not always much more 生産力のある than that of the poor; or, at least, it is never so much more 生産力のある as it 一般的に is in 製造（する）s. The corn of the rich country, therefore, will not always, in the same degree of goodness, come cheaper to market than that of the poor. The corn of Poland, in the same degree of goodness, is as cheap as that of フラン, notwithstanding the superior opulence and 改良 of the latter country. The corn of フラン is, in the corn 州s, fully as good, and in most years nearly about the same price with the corn of England, though, in opulence and 改良, フラン is perhaps inferior to England. The corn-lands of England, however, are better cultivated than those of フラン, and the corn-lands of フラン are said to be much better cultivated than those of Poland. But though the poor country, notwithstanding the inferiority of its cultivation, can, in some 手段, 競争相手 the rich in the cheapness and goodness of its corn, it can pretend to no such 競争 in its 製造（する）s; at least if those 製造（する）s 控訴 the 国／地域, 気候, and 状況／情勢 of the rich country. The silks of フラン are better and cheaper than those of England, because the silk 製造（する）, at least under the 現在の high 義務s upon the 輸入 of raw silk, does not so 井戸／弁護士席 控訴 the 気候 of England as that of フラン. But the 金物類／武器類 and the coarse woollens of England are beyond all comparison superior to those of フラン, and much cheaper too in the same degree of goodness. In Poland there are said to be 不十分な any 製造（する）s of any 肉親，親類d, a few of those coarser 世帯 製造（する）s excepted, without which no country can 井戸／弁護士席 subsist.

This 広大な／多数の／重要な 増加する of the 量 of work which, in consequence of the 分割 of 労働, the same number of people are 有能な of 成し遂げるing, is 借りがあるing to three different circumstances; first, to the 増加する of dexterity in every particular workman; secondly, to the saving of the time which is 一般的に lost in passing from one 種類 of work to another; and lastly, to the 発明 of a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of machines which 容易にする and abridge 労働, and enable one man to do the work of many.

First, the 改良 of the dexterity of the workman やむを得ず 増加するs the 量 of the work he can 成し遂げる; and the 分割 of 労働, by 減ずるing every man's 商売／仕事 to some one simple 操作／手術, and by making this 操作／手術 the 単独の 雇用 of his life, やむを得ず 増加するd very much dexterity of the workman. A ありふれた smith, who, though accustomed to 扱う the 大打撃を与える, has never been used to make nails, if upon some particular occasion he is 強いるd to 試みる／企てる it, will 不十分な, I am 保証するd, be able to make above two or three hundred nails in a day, and those too very bad ones. A smith who has been accustomed to make nails, but whose 単独の or 主要な／長／主犯 商売／仕事 has not been that of a nailer, can seldom with his 最大の diligence make more than eight hundred or a thousand nails in a day. I have seen several boys under twenty years of age who had never 演習d any other 貿易（する） but that of making nails, and who, when they 発揮するd themselves, could make, each of them, 上向きs of two thousand three hundred nails in a day. The making of a nail, however, is by no means one of the simplest 操作／手術s. The same person blows the bellows, 動かすs or mends the 解雇する／砲火／射撃 as there is occasion, heats the アイロンをかける, and (1)偽造する／(2)徐々に進むs every part of the nail: in (1)偽造する／(2)徐々に進むing the 長，率いる too he is 強いるd to change his 道具s. The different 操作／手術s into which the making of a pin, or of a metal button, is subdivided, are all of them much more simple, and the dexterity of the person, of whose life it has been the 単独の 商売／仕事 to 成し遂げる them, is usually much greater. The rapidity with which some of the 操作／手術s of those 製造業者s are 成し遂げるd, 越えるs what the human 手渡す could, by those who had never seen them, be supposed 有能な of acquiring.

Secondly, the advantage which is 伸び（る）d by saving the time 一般的に lost in passing from one sort of work to another is much greater than we should at first 見解（をとる） be apt to imagine it. It is impossible to pass very quickly from one 肉親，親類d of work to another that is carried on in a different place and with やめる different 道具s. A country weaver, who cultivates a small farm, must lose a good 取引，協定 of time in passing from his ぼんやり現れる to the field, and from the field to his ぼんやり現れる. When the two 貿易（する）s can be carried on in the same workhouse, the loss of time is no 疑問 much いっそう少なく. It is even in this 事例／患者, however, very かなりの. A man 一般的に saunters a little in turning his 手渡す from one sort of 雇用 to another. When he first begins the new work he is seldom very keen and hearty; his mind, as they say, does not go to it, and for some time he rather trifles than 適用するs to good 目的. The habit of sauntering and of indolent careless 使用／適用, which is 自然に, or rather やむを得ず acquired by every country workman who is 強いるd to change his work and his 道具s every half hour, and to 適用する his 手渡す in twenty different ways almost every day of his life, （判決などを）下すs him almost always slothful and lazy, and incapable of any vigorous 使用／適用 even on the most 圧力（をかける）ing occasions. 独立した・無所属, therefore, of his 欠陥／不足 in point of dexterity, this 原因（となる） alone must always 減ずる かなり the 量 of work which he is 有能な of 成し遂げるing.

Thirdly, and lastly, everybody must be sensible how much 労働 is 容易にするd and abridged by the 使用／適用 of proper 機械／機構. It is unnecessary to give any example. I shall only 観察する, therefore, that the 発明 of all those machines by which 労働 is so much 容易にするd and abridged seems to have been 初めは 借りがあるing to the 分割 of 労働. Men are much more likely to discover easier and readier methods of 達成するing any 反対する when the whole attention of their minds is directed に向かって that 選び出す／独身 反対する than when it is dissipated の中で a 広大な／多数の／重要な variety of things. But in consequence of the 分割 of 労働, the whole of every man's attention comes 自然に to be directed に向かって some one very simple 反対する. It is 自然に to be 推定する／予想するd, therefore, that some one or other of those who are 雇うd in each particular 支店 of 労働 should soon find out easier and readier methods of 成し遂げるing their own particular work, wherever the nature of it 収容する／認めるs of such 改良. A 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the machines made use of in those 製造（する）s in which 労働 is most subdivided, were 初めは the 発明s of ありふれた workmen, who, 存在 each of them 雇うd in some very simple 操作／手術, 自然に turned their thoughts に向かって finding out easier and readier methods of 成し遂げるing it. Whoever has been much accustomed to visit such 製造（する）s must frequently have been shown very pretty machines, which were the 発明s of such workmen ーするために 容易にする and quicken their particular part of the work. In the first 解雇する／砲火／射撃-engines, a boy was 絶えず 雇うd to open and shut alternately the communication between the boiler and the cylinder, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the piston either 上がるd or descended. One of those boys, who loved to play with his companions, 観察するd that, by tying a string from the 扱う of the 弁 which opened this communication to another part of the machine, the 弁 would open and shut without his 援助, and leave him at liberty to コースを変える himself with his playfellows. One of the greatest 改良s that has been made upon this machine, since it was first invented, was in this manner the 発見 of a boy who 手配中の，お尋ね者 to save his own 労働.

All the 改良s in 機械／機構, however, have by no means been the 発明s of those who had occasion to use the machines. Many 改良s have been made by the ingenuity of the 製造者s of the machines, when to make them became the 商売／仕事 of a peculiar 貿易（する）; and some by that of those who are called philosophers or men of 憶測, whose 貿易（する） it is not to do anything, but to 観察する everything; and who, upon that account, are often 有能な of 連合させるing together the 力／強力にするs of the most distant and dissimilar 反対するs. In the 進歩 of society, philosophy or 憶測 becomes, like every other 雇用, the 主要な／長／主犯 or 単独の 貿易（する） and 占領／職業 of a particular class of 国民s. Like every other 雇用 too, it is subdivided into a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of different 支店s, each of which affords 占領／職業 to a peculiar tribe or class of philosophers; and this subdivision of 雇用 in philosophy, 同様に as in every other 商売／仕事, 改善するs dexterity, and saves time. Each individual becomes more 専門家 in his own peculiar 支店, more work is done upon the whole, and the 量 of science is かなり 増加するd by it.

It is the 広大な／多数の／重要な multiplication of the 生産／産物s of all the different arts, in consequence of the 分割 of 労働, which occasions, in a 井戸／弁護士席-治める／統治するd society, that 全世界の／万国共通の opulence which 延長するs itself to the lowest 階級s of the people. Every workman has a 広大な／多数の／重要な 量 of his own work to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of beyond what he himself has occasion for; and every other workman 存在 正確に／まさに in the same 状況／情勢, he is enabled to 交流 a 広大な／多数の／重要な 量 of his own goods for a 広大な／多数の／重要な 量, or, what comes to the same thing, for the price of a 広大な／多数の／重要な 量 of theirs. He 供給（する）s them abundantly with what they have occasion for, and they 融通する him as amply with what he has occasion for, and a general plenty diffuses itself through all the different 階級s of the society.

観察する the accommodation of the most ありふれた artificer or day-labourer in a civilised and 栄えるing country, and you will perceive that the number of people of whose 産業 a part, though but a small part, has been 雇うd in procuring him this accommodation, 越えるs all computation. The woollen coat, for example, which covers the day-labourer, as coarse and rough as it may appear, is the produce of the 共同の 労働 of a 広大な／多数の／重要な multitude of workmen. The shepherd, the sorter of the wool, the wool-comber or carder, the dyer, the scribbler, the spinner, the weaver, the fuller, the dresser, with many others, must all join their different arts ーするために 完全にする even this homely 生産／産物. How many merchants and 運送／保菌者s, besides, must have been 雇うd in 輸送（する）ing the 構成要素s from some of those workmen to others who often live in a very distant part of the country! How much 商業 and 航海 in particular, how many ship-建設業者s, sailors, sail-製造者s, rope-製造者s, must have been 雇うd ーするために bring together the different 麻薬s made use of by the dyer, which often come from the remotest corners of the world! What a variety of 労働, too, is necessary ーするために produce the 道具s of the meanest of those workmen! To say nothing of such 複雑にするd machines as the ship of the sailor, the mill of the fuller, or even the ぼんやり現れる of the weaver, let us consider only what a variety of 労働 is requisite ーするために form that very simple machine, the shears with which the shepherd clips the wool. The 鉱夫, the 建設業者 of the furnace for smelting the 鉱石, the 販売人 of the 木材／素質, the burner of the charcoal to be made use of in the smelting-house, the brickmaker, the brick-層, the workmen who …に出席する the furnace, the mill-wright, the forger, the smith, must all of them join their different arts ーするために produce them. Were we to 診察する, in the same manner, all the different parts of his dress and 世帯 furniture, the coarse linen shirt which he wears next his 肌, the shoes which cover his fe et, the bed which he lies on, and all the different parts which compose it, the kitchen-grate at which he 準備するs his victuals, the coals which he makes use of for that 目的, dug from the bowels of the earth, and brought to him perhaps by a long sea and a long land carriage, all the other utensils of his kitchen, all the furniture of his （米）棚上げする／（英）提議する, the knives and forks, the earthen or pewter plates upon which he serves up and divides his victuals, the different 手渡すs 雇うd in 準備するing his bread and his beer, the glass window which lets in the heat and the light, and keeps out the 勝利，勝つd and the rain, with all the knowledge and art requisite for 準備するing that beautiful and happy 発明, without which these northern parts of the world could 不十分な have afforded a very comfortable habitation, together with the 道具s of all the different workmen 雇うd in producing those different conveniences; if we 診察する, I say, all these things, and consider what a variety of 労働 is 雇うd about each of them, we shall be sensible that, without the 援助 and co-操作／手術 of many thousands, the very meanest person in a civilised country could not be 供給するd, even によれば what we very 誤って imagine the 平易な and simple manner in which he is 一般的に 融通するd. Compared, indeed, with the more extravagant 高級な of the 広大な／多数の／重要な, his accommodation must no 疑問 appear 極端に simple and 平易な; and yet it may be true, perhaps, that the accommodation of a European prince does not always so much 越える that of an industrious and frugal 小作農民 as the accommodation of the latter 越えるs that of many an African king, the 絶対の master of the lives and liberties of ten thousand naked savages.

一時期／支部 II
Of the 原則 which gives occasion to the 分割 of 労働

Whether this propensity be one of those 初めの 原則s in human nature of which no その上の account can be given; or whether, as seems more probable, it be the necessary consequence of the faculties of 推論する／理由 and speech, it belongs not to our 現在の 支配する to 問い合わせ. It is ありふれた to all men, and to be 設立する in no other race of animals, which seem to know neither this nor any other 種類 of 契約s. Two greyhounds, in running 負かす／撃墜する the same hare, have いつかs the 外見 of 事実上の／代理 in some sort of concert. Each turns her に向かって his companion, or endeavours to 迎撃する her when his companion turns her に向かって himself. This, however, is not the 影響 of any 契約, but of the 偶発の concurrence of their passions in the same 反対する at that particular time. Nobody ever saw a dog make a fair and 審議する／熟考する 交流 of one bone for another with another dog. Nobody ever saw one animal by its gestures and natural cries signify to another, this is 地雷, that yours; I am willing to give this for that. When an animal wants to 得る something either of a man or of another animal, it has no other means of 説得／派閥 but to 伸び（る） the favour of those whose service it 要求するs. A puppy fawns upon its dam, and a spaniel endeavours by a thousand attractions to engage the attention of its master who is at dinner, when it wants to be fed by him. Man いつかs uses the same arts with his brethren, and when he has no other means of engaging them to 行為／法令／行動する によれば his inclinations, endeavours by every servile and fawning attention to 得る their good will. He has not time, however, to do this upon every occasion. In civilised society he stands at all times in need of the 協調 and 援助 of 広大な／多数の／重要な multitudes, while his whole life is 不十分な 十分な to 伸び（る） the friendship of a few persons. In almost every other race of animals each individual, when it is grown up to 成熟, is 完全に 独立した・無所属, and in its natural 明言する／公表する has occasion for the 援助 of no other living creature. But man has alm ost constant occasion for the help of his brethren, and it is in vain for him to 推定する／予想する it from their benevolence only. He will be more likely to 勝つ／広く一帯に広がる if he can 利益／興味 their self-love in his favour, and show them that it is for their own advantage to do for him what he 要求するs of them. Whoever 申し込む／申し出s to another a 取引 of any 肉親，親類d, 提案するs to do this. Give me that which I want, and you shall have this which you want, is the meaning of every such 申し込む／申し出; and it is in this manner that we 得る from one another the far greater part of those good offices which we stand in need of. It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the パン職人 that we 推定する／予想する our dinner, but from their regard to their own 利益／興味. We 演説（する）／住所 ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages. Nobody but a beggar chooses to depend 主として upon the benevolence of his fellow-国民s. Even a beggar does not depend upon it 完全に. The charity of 井戸／弁護士席-性質の／したい気がして people, indeed, 供給（する）s him with the whole 基金 of his subsistence. But though this 原則 最終的に 供給するs him with all the necessaries of life which he has occasion for, it neither does nor can 供給する him with them as he has occasion for them. The greater part of his 時折の wants are 供給（する）d in the same manner as those of other people, by 条約, by 物々交換する, and by 購入（する）. With the money which one man gives him he 購入（する）s food. The old 着せる／賦与するs which another bestows upon him he 交流s for other old 着せる／賦与するs which 控訴 him better, or for 宿泊するing, or for food, or for money, with which he can buy either food, 着せる／賦与するs, or 宿泊するing, as he has occasion.

As it is by 条約, by 物々交換する, and by 購入（する） that we 得る from one another the greater part of those 相互の good offices which we stand in need of, so it is this same トラックで運ぶing disposition which 初めは gives occasion to the 分割 of 労働. In a tribe of hunters or shepherds a particular person makes 屈服するs and arrows, for example, with more 準備完了 and dexterity than any other. He frequently 交流s them for cattle or for venison with his companions; and he finds at last that he can in this manner get more cattle and venison than if he himself went to the field to catch them. From a regard to his own 利益／興味, therefore, the making of 屈服するs and arrows grows to be his 長，指導者 商売／仕事, and he becomes a sort of armourer. Another excels in making the でっちあげる，人を罪に陥れるs and covers of their little huts or movable houses. He is accustomed to be of use in this way to his 隣人s, who reward him in the same manner with cattle and with venison, till at last he finds it his 利益／興味 to dedicate himself 完全に to this 雇用, and to become a sort of house-carpenter. In the same manner a third becomes a smith or a brazier, a fourth a tanner or dresser of hides or 肌s, the 主要な／長／主犯 part of the nothing of savages. And thus the certainty of 存在 able to 交流 all that 黒字／過剰 part of the produce of his own 労働, which is over and above his own 消費, for such parts of the produce of other men's 労働 as he may have occasion for, encourages every man to 適用する himself to a particular 占領／職業, and to cultivate and bring to perfection whatever talent or genius he may 所有する for that particular 種類 of 商売／仕事.

The difference of natural talents in different men is, in reality, much いっそう少なく than we are aware of; and the very different genius which appears to distinguish men of different professions, when grown up to 成熟, is not upon many occasions so much the 原因（となる） as the 影響 of the 分割 of 労働. The difference between the most dissimilar characters, between a philosopher and a ありふれた street porter, for example, seems to arise not so much from nature as from habit, custom, and education. When they （機の）カム into the world, and for the first six or eight years of their 存在, they were perhaps very much alike, and neither their parents nor playfellows could perceive any remarkable difference. About that age, or soon after, they come to be 雇うd in very different 占領／職業s. The difference of talents comes then to be taken notice of, and 広げるs by degrees, till at last the vanity of the philosopher is willing to 認める 不十分な any resemblance. But without the disposition to トラックで運ぶ, 物々交換する, and 交流, every man must have procured to himself every necessary and conveniency of life which he 手配中の，お尋ね者. All must have had the same 義務s to 成し遂げる, and the same work to do, and there could have been no such difference of 雇用 as could alone give occasion to any 広大な／多数の／重要な difference of talents.

As it is this disposition which forms that difference of talents, so remarkable の中で men of different professions, so it is this same disposition which （判決などを）下すs that difference useful. Many tribes of animals 定評のある to be all of the same 種類 derive from nature a much more remarkable distinction of genius, than what, antecedent to custom and education, appears to take place の中で men. By nature a philosopher is not in genius and disposition half so different from a street porter, as a mastiff is from a greyhound, or a greyhound from a spaniel, or this last from a shepherd's dog. Those different tribes of animals, however, though all of the same 種類, are of 不十分な any use to one another. The strength of the mastiff is not, in the least, supported either by the swiftness of the greyhound, or by the sagacity of the spaniel, or by the docility of the shepherd's dog. The 影響s of those different geniuses and talents, for want of the 力／強力にする or disposition to 物々交換する and 交流, cannot be brought into a ありふれた 在庫／株, and do not in the least 与える／捧げる to the better accommodation ind conveniency of the 種類. Each animal is still 強いるd to support and defend itself, 分かれて and 独立して, and derives no sort of advantage from that variety of talents with which nature has distinguished its fellows. の中で men, on the contrary, the most dissimilar geniuses are of use to one another; the different produces of their 各々の talents, by the general disposition to トラックで運ぶ, 物々交換する, and 交流, 存在 brought, as it were, into a ありふれた 在庫／株, where every man may 購入（する） whatever part of the produce of other men's talents he has occasion for.

一時期／支部 III
That the 分割 of 労働 is 限られた／立憲的な by the Extent of the Market

There are some sorts of 産業, even of the lowest 肉親，親類d, which can be carried on nowhere but in a 広大な／多数の／重要な town. A porter, for example, can find 雇用 and subsistence in no other place. A village is by much too 狭くする a sphere for him; even an ordinary market town is 不十分な large enough to afford him constant 占領／職業. In the 孤独な houses and very small villages which are scattered about in so 砂漠 a country as the Highlands of Scotland, every 農業者 must be butcher, パン職人 and brewer for his own family. In such 状況／情勢s we can 不十分な 推定する／予想する to find even a smith, a carpenter, or a mason, within いっそう少なく than twenty miles of another of the same 貿易（する）. The scattered families that live at eight or ten miles distance from the nearest of them must learn to 成し遂げる themselves a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of little pieces of work, for which, in more populous countries, they would call in the 援助 of those workmen. Country workmen are almost everywhere 強いるd to 適用する themselves to all the different 支店s of 産業 that have so much affinity to one another as to be 雇うd about the same sort of 構成要素s. A country carpenter 取引，協定s in every sort of work that is made of 支持を得ようと努めるd: a country smith in every sort of work that is made of アイロンをかける. The former is not only a carpenter, but a joiner, a 閣僚-製造者, and even a carver in 支持を得ようと努めるd, 同様に as a wheel-wright, a plough-wright, a cart and waggon 製造者. The 雇用s of the latter are still more さまざまな. It is impossible there should be such a 貿易（する） as even that of a nailer in the remote and inland parts of the Highlands of Scotland. Such a workman at the 率 of a thousand nails a day, and three hundred working days in the year, will make three hundred thousand nails in the year. But in such a 状況／情勢 it would be impossible to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of one thousand, that is, of one day's work in the year.

As by means of water-carriage a more 広範囲にわたる market is opened to every sort of 産業 than what land-carriage alone can afford it, so it is upon the sea-coast, and along the banks of navigable rivers, that 産業 of every 肉親，親類d 自然に begins to subdivide and 改善する itself, and it is frequently not till a long time after that those 改良s 延長する themselves to the inland parts of the country. A 幅の広い-wheeled waggon, …に出席するd by two men, and drawn by eight horses, in about six weeks' time carries and brings 支援する between London and Edinburgh 近づく four トン 負わせる of goods. In about the same time a ship navigated by six or eight men, and sailing between the ports of London and Leith, frequently carries and brings 支援する two hundred トン 負わせる of goods. Six or eight men, therefore, by the help of water-carriage, can carry and bring 支援する in the same time the same 量 of goods between London and Edinburgh, as fifty 幅の広い-wheeled waggons, …に出席するd by a hundred men, and drawn by four hundred horses. Upon two hundred トンs of goods, therefore, carried by the cheapest land-carriage from London to Edinburgh, there must be 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金d the 維持／整備 of a hundred men for three weeks, and both the 維持／整備, and, what is nearly equal to the 維持／整備, the wear and 涙／ほころび of four hundred horses 同様に as of fifty 広大な／多数の／重要な waggons. 反して, upon the same 量 of goods carried by water, there is to be 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金d only the 維持／整備 of six or eight men, and the wear and 涙／ほころび of a ship of two hundred トンs 重荷（を負わせる）, together with the value of the superior 危険, or the difference of the 保険 between land and water-carriage. Were there no other communication between those two places, therefore, but by land-carriage, as no goods could be 輸送（する）d from the one to the other, except such whose price was very かなりの in 割合 to their 負わせる, they could carry on but a small part of that 商業 which at 現在の subsists between them, and その結果 could give but a small part of that 激励 which the y at 現在の 相互に afford to each other's 産業. There could be little or no 商業 of any 肉親，親類d between the distant parts of the world. What goods could 耐える the expense of land-carriage between London and Calcutta? Or if there were any so precious as to be able to support this expense, with what safety could they be 輸送（する）d through the 領土s of so many barbarous nations? Those two cities, however, at 現在の carry on a very かなりの 商業 with each other, and by 相互に affording a market, give a good 取引，協定 of 激励 to each other's 産業.

Since such, therefore, are the advantages of water-carriage, it is natural that the first 改良s of art and 産業 should be made where this conveniency opens the whole world for a market to the produce of every sort of 労働, and that they should always be much later in 延長するing themselves into the inland parts of the country. The inland parts of the country can for a long time have no other market for the greater part of their goods, but the country which lies 一連の会議、交渉／完成する about them, and separates them from the sea-coast, and the 広大な／多数の／重要な navigable rivers. The extent of their market, therefore, must for a long time be in 割合 to the riches and populousness of that country, and その結果 their 改良 must always be posterior to the 改良 of that country. In our North American 植民地s the 農園s have 絶えず followed either the sea-coast or the banks of the navigable rivers, and have 不十分な anywhere 延長するd themselves to any かなりの distance from both.

The nations that, によれば the best authenticated history, appear to have been first civilised, were those that dwelt 一連の会議、交渉／完成する the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. That sea, by far the greatest inlet that is known in the world, having no tides, nor その結果 any waves except such as are 原因（となる）d by the 勝利，勝つd only, was, by the smoothness of its surface, 同様に as by the multitude of its islands, and the proximity of its 隣人ing shores, 極端に favourable to the 幼児 航海 of the world; when, from their ignorance of the compass, men were afraid to やめる the 見解（をとる） of the coast, and from the imperfection of the art of shipbuilding, to abandon themselves to the boisterous waves of the ocean. To pass beyond the 中心存在s of Hercules, that is, to sail out of the 海峡s of Gibraltar, was, in the 古代の world, long considered as a most wonderful and dangerous 偉業／利用する of 航海. It was late before even the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, the most skilful 航海士s and ship-建設業者s of those old times, 試みる／企てるd it, and they were for a long time the only nations that did 試みる／企てる it.

Of all the countries on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Egypt seems to have been the first in which either 農業 or 製造（する）s were cultivated and 改善するd to any かなりの degree. Upper Egypt 延長するs itself nowhere above a few miles from the Nile, and in Lower Egypt that 広大な／多数の／重要な river breaks itself into many different canals, which, with the 援助 of a little art, seem to have afforded a communication by water-carriage, not only between all the 広大な／多数の／重要な towns, but between all the かなりの villages, and even to many farmhouses in the country; nearly in the same manner as the Rhine and the Maas do in Holland at 現在の. The extent and easiness of this inland 航海 was probably one of the 主要な／長／主犯 原因（となる）s of the 早期に 改良 of Egypt.

The 改良s in 農業 and 製造（する）s seem likewise to have been of very 広大な／多数の／重要な antiquity in the 州s of Bengal, in the East Indies, and in some of the eastern 州s of 中国; though the 広大な／多数の／重要な extent of this antiquity is not authenticated by any histories of whose 当局 we, in this part of the world, are 井戸／弁護士席 保証するd. In Bengal the ギャング（団）s and several other 広大な／多数の／重要な rivers form a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of navigable canals in the same manner as the Nile does in Egypt. In the Eastern 州s of 中国 too, several 広大な／多数の／重要な rivers form, by their different 支店s, a multitude of canals, and by communicating with one another afford an inland 航海 much more 広範囲にわたる than that either of the Nile or the ギャング（団）s, or perhaps than both of them put together. It is remarkable that neither the 古代の Egyptians, nor the Indians, nor the Chinese, encouraged foreign 商業, but seem all to have derived their 広大な／多数の／重要な opulence from this inland 航海.

All the inland parts of Africa, and all that part of Asia which lies any かなりの way north of the Euxine and Caspian seas, the 古代の Scythia, the modern Tartary and Siberia, seem in all ages of the world to have been in the same barbarous and uncivilised 明言する／公表する in which we find them at 現在の. The Sea of Tartary is the frozen ocean which 収容する／認めるs of no 航海, and though some of the greatest rivers in the world run through that country, they are at too 広大な／多数の／重要な a distance from one another to carry 商業 and communication through the greater part of it. There are in Africa 非，不，無 of those 広大な／多数の／重要な inlets, such as the Baltic and Adriatic seas in Europe, the Mediterranean and Euxine seas in both Europe and Asia, and the 湾s of Arabia, Persia, India, Bengal, and Siam, in Asia, to carry 海上の 商業 into the 内部の parts of that 広大な／多数の／重要な continent: and the 広大な／多数の／重要な rivers of Africa are at too 広大な／多数の／重要な a distance from one another to give occasion to any かなりの inland 航海. The 商業 besides which any nation can carry on by means of a river which does not break itself into any 広大な／多数の／重要な number of 支店s or canals, and which runs into another 領土 before it reaches the sea, can never be very かなりの; because it is always in the 力／強力にする of the nations who 所有する that other 領土 to 妨害する the communication between the upper country and the sea. The 航海 of the Danube is of very little use to the different 明言する／公表するs of Bavaria, Austria and Hungary, in comparison of what it would be if any of them 所有するd the whole of its course till it 落ちるs into the 黒人／ボイコット Sea.

一時期／支部 IV
Of the Origin and Use of Money

But when the 分割 of 労働 first began to take place, this 力／強力にする of 交流ing must frequently have been very much clogged and embarrassed in its 操作／手術s. One man, we shall suppose, has more of a 確かな 商品／必需品 than he himself has occasion for, while another has いっそう少なく. The former その結果 would be glad to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of, and the latter to 購入（する）, a part of this superfluity. But if this latter should chance to have nothing that the former stands in need of, no 交流 can be made between them. The butcher has more meat in his shop than he himself can 消費する, and the brewer and the パン職人 would each of them be willing to 購入（する） a part of it. But they have nothing to 申し込む／申し出 in 交流, except the different 生産／産物s of their 各々の 貿易（する）s, and the butcher is already 供給するd with all the bread and beer which he has 即座の occasion for. No 交流 can, in this 事例／患者, be made between them. He cannot be their merchant, nor they his 顧客s; and they are all of them thus 相互に いっそう少なく serviceable to one another. ーするために 避ける the inconveniency of such 状況／情勢s, every 慎重な man in every period of society, after the first 設立 of the 分割 of 労働, must 自然に have endeavoured to manage his 事件／事情／状勢s in such a manner as to have at alltimes by him, besides the peculiar produce of his own 産業, a 確かな 量 of some one 商品／必需品 or other, such as he imagined few people would be likely to 辞退する in 交流 for the produce of their 産業.

Many different 商品／必需品s, it is probable, were successively both thought of and 雇うd for this 目的. In the rude ages of society, cattle are said to have been the ありふれた 器具 of 商業; and, though they must have been a most inconvenient one, yet in old times we find things were frequently valued によれば the number of cattle which had been given in 交流 for them. The armour of Diomede, says ホームラン, cost only nine oxen; but that of Glaucus cost an hundred oxen. Salt is said to be the ありふれた 器具 of 商業 and 交流s in Abyssinia; a 種類 of 爆撃するs in some parts of the coast of India; 乾燥した，日照りのd cod at Newfoundland; タバコ in Virginia; sugar in some of our West India 植民地s; hides or dressed leather in some other countries; and there is at this day a village in Scotland where it is not uncommon, I am told, for a workman to carry nails instead of money to the パン職人's shop or the alehouse.

In all countries, however, men seem at last to have been 決定するd by irresistible 推論する／理由s to give the preference, for this 雇用, to metals above every other 商品／必需品. Metals can not only be kept with as little loss as any other 商品／必需品, 不十分な anything 存在 いっそう少なく perishable than they are, but they can likewise, without any loss, be divided into any number of parts, as by fusion those parts can easily be 再会させるd again; a 質 which no other 平等に 持続する 商品／必需品s 所有する, and which more than any other 質 （判決などを）下すs them fit to be the 器具s of 商業 and 循環／発行部数. The man who 手配中の，お尋ね者 to buy salt, for example, and had nothing but cattle to give in 交流 for it, must have been 強いるd to buy salt to the value of a whole ox, or a whole sheep at a time. He could seldom buy いっそう少なく than this, because what he was to give for it could seldom be divided without loss; and if he had a mind to buy more, he must, for the same 推論する／理由s, have been 強いるd to buy 二塁打 or ３倍になる the 量, the value, to wit, of two or three oxen, or of two or three sheep. If, on the contrary, instead of sheep or oxen, he had metals to give in 交流 for it, he could easily 割合 the 量 of the metal to the 正確な 量 of the 商品／必需品 which he had 即座の occasion for.

Different metals have been made use of by different nations for this 目的. アイロンをかける was the ありふれた 器具 of 商業 の中で the 古代の Spartans; 巡査 の中で the 古代の Romans; and gold and silver の中で all rich and 商業の nations.

Those metals seem 初めは to have been made use of for this 目的 in rude 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業s, without any stamp or coinage. Thus we are told by Pliny, upon the 当局 of Timaeus, an 古代の historian, that, till the time of Servius Tullius, the Romans had no coined money, but made use of unstamped 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業s of 巡査, to 購入（する） whatever they had occasion for. These 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業s, therefore, 成し遂げるd at this time the 機能（する）／行事 of money.

The use of metals in this rude 明言する／公表する was …に出席するd with two very かなりの inconveniencies; first, with the trouble of 重さを計るing; and, secondly, with that of assaying them. In the precious metals, where a small difference in the 量 makes a 広大な／多数の／重要な difference in the value, even the 商売／仕事 of 重さを計るing, with proper exactness, 要求するs at least very 正確な 負わせるs and 規模s. The 重さを計るing of gold in particular is an 操作／手術 of some nicety. In the coarser metals, indeed, where a small error would be of little consequence, いっそう少なく 正確 would, no 疑問, be necessary. Yet we should find it 過度に troublesome, if every time a poor man had occasion either to buy or sell a farthing's 価値（がある） of goods, he was 強いるd to 重さを計る the farthing. The 操作／手術 of assaying is still more difficult, still more tedious, and, unless a part of the metal is 公正に／かなり melted in the crucible, with proper dissolvents, any 結論 that can be drawn from it, is 極端に uncertain. Before the 会・原則 of coined money, however, unless they went through this tedious and difficult 操作／手術, people must always have been liable to the grossest 詐欺s and 課税s, and instead of a 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる of pure silver, or pure 巡査, might receive in 交流 for their goods an adulterated composition of the coarsest and cheapest 構成要素s, which had, however, in their outward 外見, been made to 似ている those metals. To 妨げる such 乱用s, to 容易にする 交流s, and その為に to encourage all sorts of 産業 and 商業, it has been 設立する necessary, in all countries that have made any かなりの 前進するs に向かって 改良, to affix a public stamp upon 確かな 量s of such particular metals as were in those countries 一般的に made use of to 購入（する） goods. Hence the origin of coined money, and of those public offices called 造幣局s; 会・原則s 正確に／まさに of the same nature with those of the aulnagers and stamp-masters of woolen and linen cloth. All of them are 平等に meant to ascertain, by means of a public stamp, th e 量 and uniform goodness of those different 商品／必需品s when brought to market.

The first public stamps of this 肉親，親類d that were affixed to the 現在の metals, seem in many 事例／患者s to have been ーするつもりであるd to ascertain, what it was both most difficult and most important to ascertain, the goodness or fineness of the metal, and to have 似ているd the 英貨の／純銀の 示す which is at 現在の affixed to plate and 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業s of silver, or the Spanish 示す which is いつかs affixed to 鋳塊s of gold, and which 存在 struck only upon one 味方する of the piece, and not covering the whole surface, ascertains the fineness, but not the 負わせる of the metal. Abraham 重さを計るs to Ephron the four hundred shekels of silver which he had agreed to 支払う／賃金 for the field of Machpelah. They are said, however, to be the 現在の money of the merchant, and yet are received by 負わせる and not by tale, in the same manner as 鋳塊s of gold and 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業s of silver are at 現在の. The 歳入s of the 古代の Saxon kings of England are said to have been paid, not in money but in 肉親，親類d, that is, in victuals and 準備／条項s of all sorts. William the 征服者／勝利者 introduced the custom of 支払う／賃金ing them in money. This money, however, was, for a long time, received at the exchequer, by 負わせる and not by tale.

The inconveniency and difficulty of 重さを計るing those metals with exactness gave occasion to the 会・原則 of coins, of which the stamp, covering 完全に both 味方するs of the piece and いつかs the 辛勝する／優位s too, was supposed to ascertain not only the fineness, but the 負わせる of the metal. Such coins, therefore, were received by tale as at 現在の, without the trouble of 重さを計るing.

The denominations of those coins seem 初めは to have 表明するd the 負わせる or 量 of metal 含む／封じ込めるd in them. In the time of Servius Tullius, who first coined money at Rome, the Roman as or pondo 含む／封じ込めるd a Roman 続けざまに猛撃する of good 巡査. It was divided in the same manner as our Troyes 続けざまに猛撃する, into twelve ounces, each of which 含む／封じ込めるd a real ounce of good 巡査. The English 続けざまに猛撃する 英貨の／純銀の, in the time of Edward I, 含む／封じ込めるd a 続けざまに猛撃する, Tower 負わせる, of silver, of a known fineness. The Tower 続けざまに猛撃する seems to have been something more than the Roman 続けざまに猛撃する, and something いっそう少なく than the Troyes 続けざまに猛撃する. This last was not introduced into the 造幣局 of England till the 18th of Henry VIII. The French livre 含む／封じ込めるd in the time of Charlemagne a 続けざまに猛撃する, Troyes 負わせる, of silver of a known fineness. The fair of Troyes in Champaign was at that time たびたび（訪れる）d by all the nations of Europe, and the 負わせるs and 対策 of so famous a market were 一般に known and esteemed. The Scots money 続けざまに猛撃する 含む／封じ込めるd, from the time of Alexander the First to that of Robert Bruce, a 続けざまに猛撃する of silver of the same 負わせる and fineness with the English 続けざまに猛撃する 英貨の／純銀の. English, French, and Scots pennies, too, 含む／封じ込めるd all of them 初めは a real pennyweight of silver, the twentieth part of an ounce, and the two-hundred-and-fortieth part of a 続けざまに猛撃する. The shilling too seems 初めは to have been the denomination of a 負わせる. When wheat is at twelve shillings the ４半期/4分の1, says an 古代の 法令 of Henry III, then wastel bread of a farthing shall 重さを計る eleven shillings and four pence. The 割合, however, between the shilling and either the penny on the one 手渡す, or the 続けざまに猛撃する on the other, seems not to have been so constant and uniform as that between the penny and the 続けざまに猛撃する. During the first race of the kings of フラン, the French sou or shilling appears upon different occasions to have 含む／封じ込めるd five, twelve, twenty, and forty pennies. の中で the 古代の Saxons a shilling appears at one time to have 含む／封じ込めるd only five pennies, and it is not i mprobable that it may have been as variable の中で them as の中で their 隣人s, the 古代の Franks. From the time of Charlemagne の中で the French, and from that of William the 征服者／勝利者 の中で the English, the 割合 between the 続けざまに猛撃する, the shilling, and the penny, seems to have been uniformly the same as at 現在の, though the value of each has been very different. For in every country of the world, I believe, the avarice and 不正 of princes and 君主 明言する／公表するs, 乱用ing the 信用／信任 of their 支配するs, have by degrees 減らすd the real 量 of metal, which had been 初めは 含む／封じ込めるd in their coins. The Roman as, in the latter ages of the 共和国, was 減ずるd to the twenty-fourth part of its 初めの value, and, instead of 重さを計るing a 続けざまに猛撃する, （機の）カム to 重さを計る only half an ounce. The English 続けざまに猛撃する and penny 含む／封じ込める at 現在の about a third only; the Scots 続けざまに猛撃する and penny about a thirty-sixth; and the French 続けざまに猛撃する and penny about a sixty-sixth part of their 初めの value. By means of those 操作／手術s the princes and 君主 明言する／公表するs which 成し遂げるd them were enabled, in 外見, to 支払う／賃金 their 負債s and to fulfil their 約束／交戦s with a smaller 量 of silver than would さもなければ have been requisite. It was indeed in 外見 only; for their creditors were really defrauded of a part of what was 予定 to them. All other debtors in the 明言する／公表する were 許すd the same 特権, and might 支払う／賃金 with the same 名目上の sum of the new and debased coin whatever they had borrowed in the old. Such 操作／手術s, therefore, have always 証明するd favourable to the debtor, and ruinous to the creditor, and have いつかs produced a greater and more 全世界の／万国共通の 革命 in the fortunes of 私的な persons, than could have been occasioned by a very 広大な／多数の／重要な public calamity.

It is in this manner that money has become in all civilised nations the 全世界の／万国共通の 器具 of 商業, by the 介入 of which goods of all 肉親，親類d are bought and sold, or 交流d for one another.

What are the 支配するs which men 自然に 観察する in 交流ing them either for money or for one another, I shall now proceed to 診察する. These 支配するs 決定する what may be called the 親族 or exchangeable value of goods.

The word value, it is to be 観察するd, has two different meanings, and いつかs 表明するs the 公共事業（料金）／有用性 of some particular 反対する, and いつかs the 力／強力にする of 購入（する）ing other goods which the 所有／入手 of that 反対する 伝えるs. The one may be called "value in use"; the other, "value in 交流." The things which have the greatest value in use have frequently little or no value in 交流; and, on the contrary, those which have the greatest value in 交流 have frequently little or no value in use. Nothing is more useful than water: but it will 購入（する） 不十分な anything; 不十分な anything can be had in 交流 for it. A diamond, on the contrary, has 不十分な any value in use; but a very 広大な／多数の／重要な 量 of other goods may frequently be had in 交流 for it.

ーするために 調査／捜査する the 原則s which 規制する the exchangeable value of 商品／必需品s, I shall endeavour to show:

First, what is the real 手段 of this exchangeable value; or, wherein consists the real price of all 商品／必需品s.

Secondly, what are the different parts of which this real price is composed or made up.

And, lastly, what are the different circumstances which いつかs raise some or all of these different parts of price above, and いつかs 沈む them below their natural or ordinary 率; or, what are the 原因（となる）s which いつかs 妨げる the market price, that is, the actual price of 商品／必需品s, from 同時に起こる／一致するing 正確に／まさに with what may be called their natural price.

I shall endeavour to explain, as fully and distinctly as I can, those three 支配するs in the three に引き続いて 一時期／支部s, for which I must very 真面目に entreat both the patience and attention of the reader: his patience ーするために 診察する a 詳細（に述べる） which may perhaps in some places appear unnecessarily tedious; and his attention ーするために understand what may, perhaps, after the fullest explication which I am 有能な of giving of it, appear still in some degree obscure. I am always willing to run some hazard of 存在 tedious ーするために be sure that I am perspicuous; and after taking the 最大の 苦痛s that I can to be perspicuous, some obscurity may still appear to remain upon a 支配する in its own nature 極端に abstracted.

一時期／支部 V
Of the Real and 名目上の Price of 商品／必需品s,
or their Price in 労働, and their Price in Money

The real price of everything, what everything really costs to the man who wants to acquire it, is the toil and trouble of acquiring it. What everything is really 価値（がある） to the man who has acquired it, and who wants to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of it or 交流 it for something else, is the toil and trouble which it can save to himself, and which it can 課す upon other people. What is bought with money or with goods is 購入（する）d by 労働 as much as what we acquire by the toil of our own 団体／死体. That money or those goods indeed save us this toil. They 含む／封じ込める the value of a 確かな 量 of 労働 which we 交流 for what is supposed at the time to 含む／封じ込める the value of an equal 量. 労働 was the first price, the 初めの 購入（する）-money that was paid for all things. It was not by gold or by silver, but by 労働, that all the wealth of the world was 初めは 購入（する）d; and its value, to those who 所有する it, and who want to 交流 it for some new 生産／産物s, is 正確に equal to the 量 of 労働 which it can enable them to 購入（する） or 命令（する）.

Wealth, as Mr. Hobbes says, is 力／強力にする. But the person who either acquires, or 後継するs to a 広大な／多数の／重要な fortune, does not やむを得ず acquire or 後継する to any political 力／強力にする, either civil or 軍の. His fortune may, perhaps, afford him the means of acquiring both, but the mere 所有／入手 of that fortune does not やむを得ず 伝える to him either. The 力／強力にする which that 所有／入手 すぐに and 直接／まっすぐに 伝えるs to him, is the 力／強力にする of 購入（する）ing; a 確かな 命令（する） over all the 労働, or over all the produce of 労働, which is then in the market. His fortune is greater or いっそう少なく, 正確に in 割合 to the extent of this 力／強力にする; or to the 量 either of other men's 労働, or, what is the same thing, of the produce of other men's 労働, which it enables him to 購入（する） or 命令（する）. The exchangeable value of everything must always be 正確に equal to the extent of this 力／強力にする which it 伝えるs to its owner.

But though 労働 be the real 手段 of the exchangeable value of all 商品／必需品s, it is not that by which their value is 一般的に 概算の. It is of difficult to ascertain the 割合 between two different 量s of 労働. The time spent in two different sorts of work will not always alone 決定する this 割合. The different degrees of hardship 耐えるd, and of ingenuity 演習d, must likewise be taken into account. There may be more 労働 in an hour's hard work than in two hours' 平易な 商売／仕事; or in an hour's 使用／適用 to a 貿易（する） which it cost ten years' 労働 to learn, than in a month's 産業 at an ordinary and obvious 雇用. But it is not 平易な to find any 正確な 手段 either of hardship or ingenuity. In 交流ing, indeed, the different 生産／産物s of different sorts of 労働 for one another, some allowance is 一般的に made for both. It is adjusted, however, not by any 正確な 手段, but by the higgling and 取引ing of the market, によれば that sort of rough equality which, though not exact, is 十分な for carrying on the 商売／仕事 of ありふれた life.

Every 商品／必需品, besides, is more frequently 交流d for, and その為に compared with, other 商品／必需品s than with 労働. It is more natural, therefore, to 見積（る） its exchangeable value by the 量 of some other 商品／必需品 than by that of the 労働 which it can 購入（する）. The greater part of people, too, understand better what is meant by a 量 of a particular 商品／必需品 than by a 量 of 労働. The one is a plain palpable 反対する; the other an abstract notion, which, though it can be made 十分に intelligible, is not altogether so natural and obvious.

But when 物々交換する 中止するs, and money has become the ありふれた 器具 of 商業, every particular 商品／必需品 is more frequently 交流d for money than for any other 商品／必需品. The butcher seldom carries his beef or his mutton to the パン職人, or the brewer, ーするために 交流 them for bread or for beer; but he carries them to the market, where he 交流s them for money, and afterwards 交流s that money for bread and for beer. The 量 of money which he gets for them 規制するs, too, the 量 of bread and beer which he can afterwards 購入（する）. It is more natural and obvious to him, therefore, to 見積（る） their value by the 量 of money, the 商品／必需品 for which he すぐに 交流s them, than by that of bread and beer, the 商品／必需品s for which he can 交流 them only by the 介入 of another 商品／必需品; and rather to say that his butcher's meat is 価値（がある） threepence or fourpence a 続けざまに猛撃する, than that it is 価値（がある） three or four 続けざまに猛撃するs of bread, or three or four quarts of small beer. Hence it comes to pass that the exchangeable value of every 商品／必需品 is more frequently 概算の by the 量 of money, than by the 量 either of 労働 or of any other 商品／必需品 which can be had in 交流 for it.

Gold and silver, however, like every other 商品／必需品, 変化させる in their value, are いつかs cheaper and いつかs dearer, いつかs of easier and いつかs of more difficult 購入（する）. The 量 of 労働 which any particular 量 of them can 購入（する） or 命令（する）, or the 量 of other goods which it will 交流 for, depends always upon the fertility or barrenness of the 地雷s which happen to be known about the time when such 交流s are made. The 発見 of the abundant 地雷s of America 減ずるd, in the sixteenth century, the value of gold and silver in Europe to about a third of what it had been before. As it costs いっそう少なく 労働 to bring those metals from the 地雷 to the market, so when they were brought thither they could 購入（する） or 命令（する） いっそう少なく 労働; and this 革命 in their value, though perhaps the greatest, is by no means the only one of which history gives some account. But as a 手段 of 量, such as the natural foot, fathom, or handful, which is continually 変化させるing in its own 量, can never be an 正確な 手段 of the 量 of other things; so a 商品／必需品 which is itself continually 変化させるing in its own value, can never be an 正確な 手段 of the value of other 商品／必需品s. Equal 量s of 労働, at all times and places, may be said to be of equal value to the labourer. In his ordinary 明言する／公表する of health, strength and spirits; in the ordinary degree of his 技術 and dexterity, he must always laydown the same 部分 of his 緩和する, his liberty, and his happiness. The price which he 支払う／賃金s must always be the same, whatever may be the 量 of goods which he receives in return for it. Of these, indeed, it may いつかs 購入（する） a greater and いつかs a smaller 量; but it is their value which 変化させるs, not that of the 労働 which 購入（する）s them. At all times and places that is dear which it is difficult to come at, or which it costs much 労働 to acquire; and that cheap which is to be had easily, or with very little 労働. 労働 alone, therefore, never 変化させるing in i ts own value, is alone the ultimate and real 基準 by which the value of all 商品／必需品s can at all times and places be 概算の and compared. It is their real price; money is their 名目上の price only.

But though equal 量s of 労働 are always of equal value to the labourer, yet to the person who 雇うs him they appear いつかs to be of greater and いつかs of smaller value. He 購入（する）s them いつかs with a greater and いつかs with a smaller 量 of goods, and to him the price of 労働 seems to 変化させる like that of all other things. It appears to him dear in the one 事例／患者, and cheap in the other. In reality, however, it is the goods which are cheap in the one 事例／患者, and dear in the other.

In this popular sense, therefore, 労働, like 商品／必需品s, may be said to have a real and a 名目上の price. Its real price may be said to consist in the 量 of the necessaries and conveniences of life which are given for it; its 名目上の price, in the 量 of money. The labourer is rich or poor, is 井戸／弁護士席 or ill rewarded, in 割合 to the real, not to the 名目上の price of his 労働.

The distinction between the real and the 名目上の price of 商品／必需品s and 労働 is not a 事柄 of mere 憶測, but may いつかs be of かなりの use in practice. The same real price is always of the same value; but on account of the variations in the value of gold and silver, the same 名目上の price is いつかs of very different values. When a landed 広い地所, therefore, is sold with a 保留（地）／予約 of a perpetual rent, if it is ーするつもりであるd that this rent should always be of the same value, it is of importance to the family in whose favour it is reserved that it should not consist in a particular sum of money. Its value would in this 事例／患者 be liable to variations of two different 肉親，親類d; first, to those which arise from the different 量s of gold and silver which are 含む／封じ込めるd at different times in coin of the same denomination; and, secondly, to those which arise from the different values of equal 量s of gold and silver at different times.

Princes and 君主 明言する／公表するs have frequently fancied that they had a 一時的な 利益／興味 to 減らす the 量 of pure metal 含む／封じ込めるd in their coins; but they seldom have fancied that they had any to augment it. The 量 of metal 含む／封じ込めるd in the coins, I believe of all nations, has, accordingly, been almost continually 減らすing, and hardly ever augmenting. Such variations, therefore, tend almost always to 減らす the value of a money rent.

The 発見 of the 地雷s of America 減らすd the value of gold and silver in Europe. This diminution, it is 一般的に supposed, though I apprehend without any 確かな proof, is still going on 徐々に, and is likely to continue to do so for a long time. Upon this supposition, therefore, such variations are more likely to 減らす than to augment the value of a money rent, even though it should be 規定するd to be paid, not in such a 量 of coined money of such a denomination (in so many 続けざまに猛撃するs 英貨の／純銀の, for example), but in so many ounces either of pure silver, or of silver of a 確かな 基準.

The rents which have been reserved in corn have 保存するd their value much better than those which have been reserved in money, even where the denomination of the coin has not been altered. By the 18th of Elizabeth it was 制定するd that a third of the rent of all college 賃貸し（する）s should be reserved in corn, to be paid, either in 肉親，親類d, or によれば the 現在の prices at the nearest public market. The money arising from this corn rent, though 初めは but a third of the whole, is in the 現在の times, によれば Dr. Blackstone, 一般的に 近づく 二塁打 of what arises from the other two-thirds. The old money rents of colleges must, によれば this account, have sunk almost to a fourth part of their 古代の value; or are 価値（がある） little more than a fourth part of the corn which they were 以前は 価値（がある）. But since the 統治する of Philip and Mary the denomination of the English coin has undergone little or no alteration, and the same number of 続けざまに猛撃するs, shillings and pence have 含む／封じ込めるd very nearly the same 量 of pure silver. This degradation, therefore, in the value of the money rents of colleges, has arisen altogether from the degradation in the value of silver.

When the degradation in the value of silver is 連合させるd with the diminution of the 量 of it 含む／封じ込めるd in the coin of the same denomination, the loss is frequently still greater. In Scotland, where the denomination of the coin has undergone much greater alterations than it ever did in England, and in フラン, where it has undergone still greater than it ever did in Scotland, some 古代の rents, 初めは of かなりの value, have in this manner been 減ずるd almost to nothing.

Equal 量s of 労働 will at distant times be 購入（する）d more nearly with equal 量s of corn, the subsistence of the labourer, than with equal 量s of gold and silver, or perhaps of any other 商品／必需品. Equal 量s of corn, therefore, will, at distant times, be more nearly of the same real value, or enable the possessor to 購入（する） or 命令（する） more nearly the same 量 of the 労働 of other people. They will do this, I say, more nearly than equal 量s of almost any other 商品／必需品; for even equal 量s of corn will not do it 正確に／まさに. The subsistence of the labourer, or the real price of 労働, as I shall endeavour to show hereafter, is very different upon different occasions; more 自由主義の in a society 前進するing to opulence than in one that is standing still; and in one that is standing still than in one that is going backwards. Every other 商品／必需品, however, will at any particular time 購入（する） a greater or smaller 量 of 労働 in 割合 to the 量 of subsistence which it can 購入（する） at that time. A rent therefore reserved in corn is liable only to the variations in the 量 of 労働 which a 確かな 量 of corn can 購入（する）. But a rent reserved in any other 商品／必需品 is liable not only to the variations in the 量 of 労働 which any particular 量 of corn can 購入（する）, but to the variations in the 量 of corn which can be 購入（する）d by any particular 量 of that 商品／必需品.

Though the real value of a corn rent, it is to be 観察するd, however, 変化させるs much いっそう少なく from century to century than that of a money rent, it 変化させるs much more from year to year. The money price of 労働, as I shall endeavour to show hereafter, does not fluctuate from year to year with the money price of corn, but seems to be everywhere 融通するd, not to the 一時的な or 時折の, but to the 普通の／平均（する） or ordinary price of that necessary of life. The 普通の／平均（する） or ordinary price of corn again is 規制するd, as I shall likewise endeavour to show hereafter, by the value of silver, by the richness or barrenness of the 地雷s which 供給（する） the market with that metal, or by the 量 of 労働 which must be 雇うd, and その結果 of corn which must be 消費するd, ーするために bring any particular 量 of silver from the 地雷 to the market. But the value of silver, though it いつかs 変化させるs 大いに from century to century, seldom 変化させるs much from year to year, but frequently continues the same, or very nearly the same, for half a century or a century together. The ordinary or 普通の／平均（する） money price of corn, therefore, may, during so long a period, continue the same or very nearly the same too, and along with it the money price of 労働, 供給するd, at least, the society continues, in other 尊敬（する）・点s, in the same or nearly in the same 条件. In the 合間 the 一時的な and 時折の price of corn may frequently be 二塁打, one year, of what it had been the year before, or fluctuate, for example, from five and twenty to fifty shillings the ４半期/4分の1. But when corn is at the latter price, not only the 名目上の, but the real value of a corn rent will be 二塁打 of what it is when at the former, or will 命令（する） 二塁打 the 量 either of 労働 or of the greater part of other 商品／必需品s; the money price of 労働, and along with it that of most other things, continuing the same during all these fluctuations.

労働, therefore, it appears evidently, is the only 全世界の／万国共通の, 同様に as the only 正確な 手段 of value, or the only 基準 by which we can compare the values of different 商品／必需品s at all times, and at all places. We cannot 見積（る）, it is 許すd, the real value of different 商品／必需品s from century to century by the 量s of silver which were given for them. We cannot 見積（る） it from year to year by the 量s of corn. By the 量s of 労働 we can, with the greatest 正確, 見積（る） it both from century to century and from year to year. From century to century, corn is a better 手段 than silver, because, from century to century, equal 量s of corn will 命令（する） the same 量 of 労働 more nearly than equal 量s of silver. From year to year, on the contrary, silver is a better 手段 than corn, because equal 量s of it will more nearly 命令（する） the same 量 of 労働.

But though in 設立するing perpetual rents, or even in letting very long 賃貸し（する）s, it may be of use to distinguish between real and 名目上の price; it is of 非，不，無 in buying and selling, the more ありふれた and ordinary 処理／取引s of human life.

At the same time and place the real and the 名目上の price of all 商品／必需品s are 正確に／まさに in 割合 to one another. The more or いっそう少なく money you get for any 商品／必需品, in the London market for example, the more or いっそう少なく 労働 it will at that time and place enable you to 購入（する） or 命令（する）. At the same time and place, therefore, money is the exact 手段 of the real exchangeable value of all 商品／必需品s. It is so, however, at the same time and place only.

Though at distant places, there is no 正規の／正選手 割合 between the real and the money price of 商品／必需品s, yet the merchant who carries goods from the one to the other has nothing to consider but their money price, or the difference between the 量 of silver for which he buys them, and that for which he is likely to sell them. Half an ounce of silver at Canton in 中国 may 命令（する） a greater 量 both of 労働 and of the necessaries and conveniences of life than an ounce at London. A 商品／必需品, therefore, which sells for half an ounce of silver at Canton may there be really dearer, of more real importance to the man who 所有するs it there, than a 商品／必需品 which sells for an ounce at London is to the man who 所有するs it at London. If a London merchant, however, can buy at Canton for half an ounce of silver, a 商品／必需品 which he can afterwards sell at London for an ounce, he 伸び（る）s a hundred per cent by the 取引, just as much as if an ounce of silver was at London 正確に／まさに of the same value as at Canton. It is of no importance to him that half an ounce of silver at Canton would have given him the 命令（する） of more 労働 and of a greater 量 of the necessaries and conveniences of life than an ounce can do at London. An ounce at London will always give him the 命令（する） of 二塁打 the 量 of all these which half an ounce could have done there, and this is 正確に what he wants.

As it is the 名目上の or money price of goods, therefore, which finally 決定するs the prudence or imprudence of all 購入（する）s and sales, and その為に 規制するs almost the whole 商売／仕事 of ありふれた life in which price is 関心d, we cannot wonder that it should have been so much more …に出席するd to than the real price.

In such a work as this, however, it may いつかs be of use to compare the different real values of a particular 商品／必需品 at different times and places, or the different degrees of 力／強力にする over the 労働 of other people which it may, upon different occasions, have given to those who 所有するd it. We must in this 事例／患者 compare, not so much the different 量s of silver for which it was 一般的に sold, as the different 量s of 労働 which those different 量s of silver could have 購入（する）d. But the 現在の prices of 労働 at distant times and places can 不十分な ever be known with any degree of exactness. Those of corn, though they have in few places been 定期的に 記録，記録的な／記録するd, are in general better known and have been more frequently taken notice of by historians and other writers. We must 一般に, therefore, content ourselves with them, not as 存在 always 正確に／まさに in the same 割合 as the 現在の prices of 労働, but as 存在 the nearest approximation which can 一般的に be had to that 割合. I shall hereafter have occasion to make several comparisons of this 肉親，親類d.

In the 進歩 of 産業, 商業の nations have 設立する it convenient to coin several different metals into money; gold for larger 支払い（額）s, silver for 購入（する）s of 穏健な value, and 巡査, or some other coarse metal, for those of still smaller consideration. They have always, however, considered one of those metals as more peculiarly the 手段 of value than any of the other two; and this preference seems 一般に to have been given to the metal which they happened first to make use of as the 器具 of 商業. Having once begun to use it as their 基準, which they must have done when they had no other money, they have 一般に continued to do so even when the necessity was not the same.

The Romans are said to have had nothing but 巡査 money till within five years before the first Punic war, when they first began to coin silver. 巡査, therefore, appears to have continued always the 手段 of value in that 共和国. At Rome all accounts appear to have been kept, and the value of all 広い地所s to have been 計算するd either in asses or in sestertii. The as was always the denomination of a 巡査 coin. The word sestertius signifies two asses and a half. Though the sestertius, therefore, was 初めは a silver coin, its value was 概算の in 巡査. At Rome, one who 借りがあるd a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 of money was said to have a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 of other people's 巡査.

The northern nations who 設立するd themselves upon the 廃虚s of the Roman empire, seem to have had silver money from the first beginning of their 解決／入植地s, and not to have known either gold or 巡査 coins for several ages thereafter. There were silver coins in England in the time of the Saxons; but there was little gold coined till the time of Edward III nor any 巡査 till that of James I of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. In England, therefore, and for the same 推論する／理由, I believe, in all other modern nations of Europe, all accounts are kept, and the value of all goods and of all 広い地所s is 一般に 計算するd in silver: and when we mean to 表明する the 量 of a person's fortune, we seldom について言及する the number of guineas, but the number of 続けざまに猛撃するs 英貨の／純銀の which we suppose would be given for it.

初めは, in all countries, I believe, a 合法的な tender of 支払い（額） could be made only in the coin of that metal, which was peculiarly considered as the 基準 or 手段 of value. In England, gold was not considered as a 合法的な tender for a long time after it was coined into money. The 割合 between the values of gold and silver money was not 直す／買収する，八百長をするd by any public 法律 or 布告／宣言; but was left to be settled by the market. If a debtor 申し込む／申し出d 支払い（額） in gold, the creditor might either 拒絶する such 支払い（額） altogether, or 受託する of it at such a valuation of the gold as he and his debtor could agree upon. 巡査 is not at 現在の a 合法的な tender except in the change of the smaller silver coins. In this 明言する／公表する of things the distinction between the metal which was the 基準, and that which was not the 基準, was something more than a 名目上の distinction.

In 過程 of time, and as people became 徐々に more familiar with the use of the different metals in coin, and その結果 better 熟知させるd with the 割合 between their 各々の values, it has in most countries, I believe, been 設立する convenient to ascertain this 割合, and to 宣言する by a public 法律 that a guinea, for example, of such a 負わせる and fineness, should 交流 for one-and-twenty shillings, or be a 合法的な tender for a 負債 of that 量. In this 明言する／公表する of things, and during the continuance of any one 規制するd 割合 of this 肉親，親類d, the distinction between the metal which is the 基準, and that which is not the 基準, becomes little more than a 名目上の distinction.

In consequence of any change, however, in this 規制するd 割合, this distinction becomes, or at least seems to become, something more than 名目上の again. If the 規制するd value of a guinea, for example, was either 減ずるd to twenty, or raised to two-and-twenty shillings, all accounts 存在 kept and almost all 義務s for 負債 存在 表明するd in silver money, the greater part of 支払い（額）s could in either 事例／患者 be made with the same 量 of silver money as before; but would 要求する very different 量s of gold money; a greater in the one 事例／患者, and a smaller in the other. Silver would appear to be more invariable in its value than gold. Silver would appear to 手段 the value of gold, and gold would not appear to 手段 the value of silver. The value of gold would seem to depend upon the 量 of silver which it would 交流 for; and the value of silver would not seem to depend upon the 量 of gold which it would 交流 for. This difference, however, would be altogether 借りがあるing to the custom of keeping accounts, and of 表明するing the 量 of all 広大な／多数の／重要な and small sums rather in silver than in gold money. One of Mr. Drummond's 公式文書，認めるs for five-and-twenty or fifty guineas would, after an alteration of this 肉親，親類d, be still payable with five-and-twenty or fifty guineas in the same manner as before. It would, after such an alteration, be payable with the same 量 of gold as before, but with very different 量s of silver. In the 支払い（額） of such a 公式文書，認める, gold would appear to be more invariable in its value than silver. Gold would appear to 手段 the value of silver, and silver would not appear to 手段 the value of gold. If the custom of keeping accounts, and of 表明するing promissory 公式文書，認めるs and other 義務s for money in this manner, should ever become general, gold, and not silver, would be considered as the metal which was peculiarly the 基準 or 手段 of value.

In reality, during the continuance of any one 規制するd 割合 between the 各々の values of the different metals in coin, the value of the most precious metal 規制するs the value of the whole coin. Twelve 巡査 pence 含む／封じ込める half a 続けざまに猛撃する, avoirdupois, of 巡査, of not the best 質, which, before it is coined, is seldom 価値（がある） sevenpence in silver. But as by the 規則 twelve such pence are ordered to 交流 for a shilling, they are in the market considered as 価値（がある） a shilling, and a shilling can at any time be had for them. Even before the late reformation of the gold coin of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, the gold, that part of it at least which 循環させるd in London and its neighbourhood, was in general いっそう少なく degraded below its 基準 負わせる than the greater part of the silver. One-and-twenty worn and defaced shillings, however, were considered as 同等（の） to a guinea, which perhaps, indeed, was worn and defaced too, but seldom so much so. The late 規則s have brought the gold coin as 近づく perhaps to its 基準 負わせる as it is possible to bring the 現在の coin of any nation; and the order, to receive no gold at the public offices but by 負わせる, is likely to 保存する it so, as long as that order is 施行するd. The silver coin still continues in the same worn and degraded 明言する／公表する as before the reformation of the gold coin. In the market, however, one-and-twenty shillings of this degraded silver coin are still considered as 価値（がある） a guinea of this excellent gold coin.

The reformation of the gold coin has evidently raised the value of the silver coin which can be 交流d for it.

In the English 造幣局 a 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる of gold is coined into forty-four guineas and a half, which, at one-and-twenty shillings the guinea, is equal to forty-six 続けざまに猛撃するs fourteen shillings and sixpence. An ounce of such gold coin, therefore, is 価値（がある） L3 17s. 10 1/2d. in silver. In England no 義務 or seignorage is paid upon the coinage, and he who carries a 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる or an ounce 負わせる of 基準 gold bullion to the 造幣局, gets 支援する a 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる or an ounce 負わせる of gold in coin, without any deduction. Three 続けざまに猛撃するs seventeen shillings and tenpence halfpenny an ounce, therefore, is said to be the 造幣局 price of gold in England, or the 量 of gold coin which the 造幣局 gives in return for 基準 gold bullion.

Before the reformation of the gold coin, the price of 基準 gold bullion in the market had for many years been 上向きs of L3 18s. いつかs L3 19s. and very frequently L4 an ounce; that sum, it is probable, in the worn and degraded gold coin, seldom 含む／封じ込めるing more than an ounce of 基準 gold. Since the reformation of the gold coin, the market price of 基準 gold bullion seldom 越えるs L3 17s. 7d. an ounce. Before the reformation of the gold coin, the market price was always more or いっそう少なく above the 造幣局 price. Since that reformation, the market price has been 絶えず below the 造幣局 price. But that market price is the same whether it is paid in gold or in silver coin. The late reformation of the gold coin, therefore, has raised not only the value of the gold coin, but likewise that of the silver coin in 割合 to gold bullion, and probably, too, in 割合 to all other 商品／必需品s; through the price of the greater part of other 商品／必需品s 存在 影響（力）d by so many other 原因（となる）s, the rise in the value either of gold or silver coin in 割合 to them may not be so 際立った and sensible.

In the English 造幣局 a 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる of 基準 silver bullion is coined into sixty-two shillings, 含む／封じ込めるing, in the same manner, a 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる of 基準 silver. Five shillings and twopence an ounce, therefore, is said to be the 造幣局 price of silver in England, or the 量 of silver coin which the 造幣局 gives in return for 基準 silver bullion. Before the reformation of the gold coin, the market price of 基準 silver bullion was, upon different occasions, five shillings and fourpence, five shillings and fivepence, five shillings and sixpence, five shillings and sevenpence, and very often five shillings and eightpence an ounce. Five shillings and sevenpence, however, seems to have been the most ありふれた price. Since the reformation of the gold coin, the market price of 基準 silver bullion has fallen occasionally to five shillings and threepence, five shillings and fourpence, and five shillings and fivepence an ounce, which last price it has 不十分な ever 越えるd. Though the market price of silver bullion has fallen かなり since the reformation of the gold coin, it has not fallen so low as the 造幣局 price.

In the 割合 between the different metals in the English coin, as 巡査 is 率d very much above its real value, so silver is 率d somewhat below it. In the market of Europe, in the French coin and in the Dutch coin, an ounce of 罰金 gold 交流s for about fourteen ounces of 罰金 silver. In the English coin, it 交流s for about fifteen ounces, that is, for more silver than it is 価値（がある） によれば the ありふれた estimation of Europe. But as the price of 巡査 in 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業s is not, even in England, raised by the high price of 巡査 in English coin, so the price of silver in bullion is not sunk by the low 率 of silver in English coin. Silver in bullion still 保存するs its proper 割合 to gold; for the same 推論する／理由 that 巡査 in 妨げる／法廷，弁護士業s 保存するs its proper 割合 to silver.

Upon the reformation of the silver coin in the 統治する of William III the price of silver bullion still continued to be somewhat above the 造幣局 price. Mr. Locke imputed this high price to the 許可 of 輸出（する）ing silver bullion, and to the 禁止 of 輸出（する）ing silver coin. This 許可 of 輸出（する）ing, he said, （判決などを）下すd the 需要・要求する for silver bullion greater than the 需要・要求する for silver coin. But the number of people who want silver coin for the ありふれた uses of buying and selling at home, is surely much greater than that of those who want silver bullion either for the use of exportation or for any other use. There subsists at 現在の a like 許可 of 輸出（する）ing gold bullion, and a like 禁止 of 輸出（する）ing gold coin: and yet the price of gold bullion has fallen below the 造幣局 price. But in the English coin silver was then, in the same manner as now, under-率d in 割合 to gold, and the gold coin (which at that time too was not supposed to 要求する any reformation) 規制するd then, 同様に as now, the real value of the whole coin. As the reformation of the silver coin did not then 減ずる the price of silver bullion to the 造幣局 price, it is not very probable that a like reformation will do so now.

Were the silver coin brought 支援する as 近づく to its 基準 負わせる as the gold, a guinea, it is probable, would, によれば the 現在の 割合, 交流 for more silver in coin than it would 購入（する） in bullion. The silver coin 含む／封じ込めるing its 十分な 基準 負わせる, there would in this 事例／患者 be a 利益（をあげる） in melting it 負かす／撃墜する, in order, first, to sell the bullion for gold coin, and afterwards to 交流 this gold coin for silver coin to be melted 負かす／撃墜する in the same manner. Some alteration in the 現在の 割合 seems to be the only method of 妨げるing this inconveniency.

The inconveniency perhaps would be いっそう少なく if silver was 率d in the coin as much above its proper 割合 to gold as it is at 現在の 率d below it; 供給するd it was at the same time 制定するd that silver should not be a 合法的な tender for more than the change of a guinea, in the same manner as 巡査 is not a 合法的な tender for more than the change of a shilling. No creditor could in this 事例／患者 be cheated in consequence of the high valuation of silver in coin; as no creditor can at 現在の be cheated in consequence of the high valuation of 巡査. The 銀行業者s only would 苦しむ by this 規則. When a run comes upon them they いつかs endeavour to 伸び（る） time by 支払う／賃金ing in sixpences, and they would be 妨げるd by this 規則 from this discreditable method of 避けるing 即座の 支払い（額）. They would be 強いるd in consequence to keep at all times in their coffers a greater 量 of cash than at 現在の; and though this might no 疑問 be a かなりの inconveniency to them, it would at the same time be a かなりの 安全 to their creditors.

Three 続けざまに猛撃するs seventeen shillings and tenpence halfpenny (the 造幣局 price of gold) certainly does not 含む／封じ込める, even in our 現在の excellent gold coin, more than an ounce of 基準 gold, and it may be thought, therefore, should not 購入（する） more 基準 bullion. But gold in coin is more convenient than gold in bullion, and though, in England, the coinage is 解放する／自由な, yet the gold which is carried in bullion to the 造幣局 can seldom be returned in coin to the owner till after a 延期する of several weeks. In the 現在の hurry of the 造幣局, it could not be returned till after a 延期する of several months. This 延期する is 同等（の） to a small 義務, and （判決などを）下すs gold in coin somewhat more 価値のある than an equal 量 of gold in bullion. If in the English coin silver was 率d によれば it proper 割合 to gold, the price of silver bullion would probably 落ちる below the 造幣局 price even without any reformation of the silver coin; the value even of the 現在の worn and defaced silver coin 存在 規制するd by the value of the excellent gold coin for which it can be changed.

A small seignorage or 義務 upon the coinage of both gold and silver would probably 増加する still more the 優越 of those metals in coin above an equal 量 of either of them in bullion. The coinage would in this 事例／患者 増加する the value of the metal coined in 割合 to the extent of this small 義務; for the same 推論する／理由 that the fashion 増加するs the value of plate in 割合 to the price of that fashion. The 優越 of coin above bullion would 妨げる the melting 負かす／撃墜する of the coin, and would discourage its exportation. If upon any public exigency it should become necessary to 輸出（する） the coin, the greater part of it would soon return again of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える. Abroad it could sell only for its 負わせる in bullion. At home it would buy more than that 負わせる. There would be a 利益（をあげる）, therefore, in bringing it home again. In フラン a seignorage of about eight per cent is 課すd upon the coinage, and the French coin, when 輸出（する）d, is said to return home again of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える.

The 時折の fluctuations in the market price of gold and silver bullion arise from the same 原因（となる）s as the like fluctuations in that of all other 商品／必需品s. The たびたび（訪れる） loss of those metals from さまざまな 事故s by sea and by land, the continual waste of them in gilding and plating, in lace and embroidery, in the wear and 涙／ほころび of coin, and in that of plate; 要求する, in all countries which 所有する no 地雷s of their own, a continual 輸入, ーするために 修理 this loss and this waste. The merchant importers, like all other merchants, we may believe, endeavour, 同様に as they can, to 控訴 their 時折の 輸入s to what, they 裁判官, is likely to be the 即座の 需要・要求する. With all their attention, however, they いつかs overdo the 商売／仕事, and いつかs underdo it. When they 輸入する more bullion than is 手配中の，お尋ね者, rather than 背負い込む the 危険 and trouble of 輸出（する）ing it again, they are いつかs willing to sell a part of it for something いっそう少なく than the ordinary or 普通の／平均（する） price. When, on the other 手渡す, they 輸入する いっそう少なく than is 手配中の，お尋ね者, they get something more than this price. But when, under all those 時折の fluctuations, the market price either of gold or silver bullion continues for several years together 刻々と and 絶えず, either more or いっそう少なく above, or more or いっそう少なく below the 造幣局 price, we may be 保証するd that this 安定した and constant, either 優越 or inferiority of price, is the 影響 of something in the 明言する／公表する of the coin, which, at that time, （判決などを）下すs a 確かな 量 of coin either of more value or of いっそう少なく value than the 正確な 量 of bullion which it せねばならない 含む／封じ込める. The constancy and steadiness of the 影響 supposes a proportionable constancy and steadiness in the 原因（となる）.

The money of any particular country is, at any particular time and place, more or いっそう少なく an 正確な 手段 of value （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the 現在の coin is more or いっそう少なく 正確に／まさに agreeable to its 基準, or 含む／封じ込めるs more or いっそう少なく 正確に／まさに the 正確な 量 of pure gold or pure silver which it せねばならない 含む／封じ込める. If in England, for example, forty-four guineas and a half 含む／封じ込めるd 正確に／まさに a 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる of 基準 gold, or eleven ounces of 罰金 gold and one ounce of alloy, the gold coin of England would be as 正確な a 手段 of the actual value of goods at any particular time and place as the nature of the thing would 収容する／認める. But if, by rubbing and wearing, forty-four guineas and a half 一般に 含む／封じ込める いっそう少なく than a 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる of 基準 gold; the diminution, however, 存在 greater in some pieces than in others; the 手段 of value comes to be liable to the same sort of 不確定 to which all other 負わせるs and 対策 are 一般的に exposed. As it rarely happens that these are 正確に／まさに agreeable to their 基準, the merchant adjusts the price of his goods, 同様に as he can, not to what those 負わせるs and 対策 せねばならない be, but to what, upon an 普通の／平均（する）, he finds by experience they 現実に are. In consequence of a like disorder in the coin, the price of goods comes, in the same manner, to be adjusted, not to the 量 of pure gold or silver which the corn せねばならない 含む／封じ込める, but to that which, upon an 普通の／平均（する）, it is 設立する by experience, it 現実に does 含む／封じ込める.

By the money-price of goods, it is to be 観察するd, I understand always the 量 of pure gold or silver for which they are sold, without any regard to the denomination of the coin. Six shillings and eightpence, for example, in the time of Edward I, I consider as the same money-price with a 続けざまに猛撃する 英貨の／純銀の in the 現在の times; because it 含む／封じ込めるd, as nearly as we can 裁判官, the same 量 of pure silver.

一時期／支部 VI
Of the 構成要素 Parts of the Price of 商品／必需品s

If the one 種類 of 労働 should be more 厳しい than the other, some allowance will 自然に be made for this superior hardship; and the produce of one hour's 労働 in the one way may frequently 交流 for that of two hours' 労働 in the other.

Or if the one 種類 of 労働 要求するs an uncommon degree of dexterity and ingenuity, the esteem which men have for such talents will 自然に give a value to their produce, superior to what would be 予定 to the time 雇うd about it. Such talents can seldom be acquired but in consequence of long 使用／適用, and the superior value of their produce may frequently be no more than a reasonable 補償（金） for the time and 労働 which must be spent in acquiring them. In the 前進するd 明言する／公表する of society, allowances of this 肉親，親類d, for superior hardship and superior 技術, are 一般的に made in the 給料 of 労働; and something of the same 肉親，親類d must probably have taken place in its earliest and rudest period.

In this 明言する／公表する of things, the whole produce of 労働 belongs to the labourer; and the 量 of 労働 一般的に 雇うd in acquiring or producing any 商品／必需品 is the only circumstance which can 規制する the 量 交流 for which it ought 一般的に to 購入（する）, 命令（する）, or 交流 for.

As soon as 在庫／株 has 蓄積するd in the 手渡すs of particular persons, some of them will 自然に 雇う it in setting to work industrious people, whom they will 供給（する） with 構成要素s and subsistence, ーするために make a 利益（をあげる） by the sale of their work, or by what their 労働 追加するs to the value of the 構成要素s. In 交流ing the 完全にする 製造（する） either for money, for 労働, or for other goods, over and above what may be 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the price of the 構成要素s, and the 給料 of the workmen, something must be given for the 利益（をあげる）s of the undertaker of the work who hazards his 在庫／株 in this adventure. The value which the workmen 追加する to the 構成要素s, therefore, 解決するs itself in this 緩和する into two parts, of which the one 支払う／賃金s their 給料, the other the 利益（をあげる）s of their 雇用者 upon the whole 在庫／株 of 構成要素s and 給料 which he 前進するd. He could have no 利益／興味 to 雇う them, unless he 推定する／予想するd from the sale of their work something more than what was 十分な to 取って代わる his 在庫／株 to him; and he could have no 利益／興味 to 雇う a 広大な／多数の／重要な 在庫／株 rather than a small one, unless his 利益（をあげる）s were to 耐える some 割合 to the extent of his 在庫／株.

The 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, it may perhaps be thought are only a different 指名する for the 給料 of a particular sort of 労働, the 労働 of 査察 and direction. They are, however, altogether different, are 規制するd by やめる different 原則s, and 耐える no 割合 to the 量, the hardship, or the ingenuity of this supposed 労働 of 査察 and direction. They are 規制するd altogether by the value of the 在庫／株 雇うd, and are greater or smaller in 割合 to the extent of this 在庫／株. Let us suppose, for example, that in some particular place, where the ありふれた 年次の 利益（をあげる）s of 製造業の 在庫／株 are ten per cent, there are two different 製造（する）s, in each of which twenty workmen are 雇うd at the 率 of fifteen 続けざまに猛撃するs a year each, or at the expense of three hundred a year in each manufactory. Let us suppose, too, that the coarse 構成要素s 毎年 wrought up in the one cost only seven hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs, while the finer 構成要素s in the other cost seven thousand. The 資本／首都 毎年 雇うd in the one will in this 事例／患者 量 only to one thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs; 反して that 雇うd in the other will 量 to seven thousand three hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs. At the 率 of ten per cent, therefore, the undertaker of the one will 推定する／予想する a 年一回の 利益（をあげる） of about one hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs only; while that of the other will 推定する／予想する about seven hundred and thirty 続けざまに猛撃するs. But though their 利益（をあげる）s are so very different, their 労働 of 査察 and direction may be either altogether or very nearly the same. In many 広大な／多数の／重要な 作品 almost the whole 労働 of this 肉親，親類d is committed to some 主要な／長／主犯 clerk. His 給料 適切に 表明する the value of this 労働 of 査察 and direction. Though in settling them some regard is had 一般的に, not only to his 労働 and 技術, but to the 信用 which is reposed in him, yet they never 耐える any 正規の／正選手 割合 to the 資本／首都 of which he 監督するs the 管理／経営; and the owner of this 資本／首都, though he is thus 発射する／解雇するd of almost all 労働, still 推定する／予想するs that his 利益（をあげる）s should 耐える a 正規の／正選手 割合 to his 資本／首都. In the price of 商品／必需品s, therefore, the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 構成する a 構成要素 part alt As soon as the land of any country has all become 私的な 所有物／資産／財産, the landlords, like all other men, love to 得る where they never （種を）蒔くd, and 需要・要求する a rent even for its natural produce. The 支持を得ようと努めるd of the forest, the grass of the field, and all the natural fruits of the earth, which, when land was in ありふれた, cost the labourer only the trouble of 集会 them, come, even to him, to have an 付加 price 直す／買収する，八百長をするd upon them. He must then 支払う／賃金 for the licence to gather them; and must give up to the landlord a 部分 of what his 労働 either collects or produces. This 部分, or, what comes to the same thing, the price of this 部分, 構成するs the rent of land, and in the price of the greater part of 商品／必需品s makes a third 構成要素 part.

The real value of all the different 構成要素 parts of price, it must be 観察するd, is 手段d by the 量 of 労働 which they can, each of them, 購入（する） or 命令（する）. 労働 対策 the value not only of that part of price which 解決するs itself into 労働, but of that which 解決するs itself into rent, and of that which 解決するs itself into 利益（をあげる）.

In every society the price of every 商品／必需品 finally 解決するs itself into some one or other, or all of those three parts; and in every 改善するd society, all the three enter more or いっそう少なく, as 構成要素 parts, into the price of the far greater part of 商品／必需品s.

In the price of corn, for example, one part 支払う／賃金s the rent of the landlord, another 支払う／賃金s the 給料 or 維持／整備 of the labourers and 労働ing cattle 雇うd in producing it, and the third 支払う／賃金s the 利益（をあげる） of the 農業者. These three parts seem either すぐに or 最終的に to （不足などを）補う the whole price of corn. A fourth part, it may perhaps be thought, is necessary for 取って代わるing the 在庫／株 of the 農業者, or for 補償するing the wear and 涙／ほころび of his 労働ing cattle, and other 器具s of husbandry. But it must be considered that the price of any 器具 of husbandry, such as a 労働ing horse, is itself made up of the same three parts; the rent of the land upon which he is 後部d, the 労働 of tending and 後部ing him, and the 利益（をあげる）s of the 農業者 who 前進するs both the rent of this land, and the 給料 of this 労働. Though the price of the corn, therefore, may 支払う／賃金 the price 同様に as the 維持／整備 of the horse, the whole price still 解決するs itself either すぐに or 最終的に into the same three parts of rent, 労働, and 利益（をあげる）.

In the price of flour or meal, we must 追加する to the price of the corn, the 利益（をあげる）s of the miller, and the 給料 of his servants; in the price of bread, the 利益（をあげる）s of the パン職人, and the 給料 of his servants; and in the price of both, the 労働 of 輸送（する）ing the corn from the house of the 農業者 to that of the miller, and from that of the 鉱夫 to that of the パン職人, together with the 利益（をあげる）s of those who 前進する the 給料 of that 労働.

The price of flax 解決するs itself into the same three parts as that of corn. In the price of linen we must 追加する to this price the 給料 of the flaxdresser, of the spinner, of the weaver, of the bleacher, etc., together with the 利益（をあげる）s of their 各々の 雇用者s.

As any particular 商品／必需品 comes to be more 製造（する）d, that part of the price which 解決するs itself into 給料 and 利益（をあげる） comes to be greater in 割合 to that which 解決するs itself into rent. In the 進歩 of the 製造（する）, not only the number of 利益（をあげる）s 増加する, but every その後の 利益（をあげる） is greater than the foregoing; because the 資本／首都 from which it is derived must always be greater. The 資本／首都 which 雇うs the weavers, for example, must be greater than that which 雇うs the spinners; because it not only 取って代わるs that 資本／首都 with its 利益（をあげる）s, but 支払う／賃金s, besides, the 給料 of the weavers; and the 利益（をあげる）s must always 耐える some 割合 to the 資本／首都.

In the most 改善するd societies, however, there are always a few 商品／必需品s of which the price 解決するs itself into two parts only, the 給料 of 労働, and the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株; and a still smaller number, in which it consists altogether in the 給料 of 労働. In the price of sea-fish, for example, one part 支払う／賃金s the 労働 of the fishermen, and the other the 利益（をあげる）s of the 資本／首都 雇うd in the 漁業. Rent very seldom makes any part of it, though it does いつかs, as I shall show hereafter. It is さもなければ, at least through the greater part of Europe, in river 漁業s. A salmon 漁業 支払う／賃金s a rent, and rent, though it cannot 井戸／弁護士席 be called the rent of land, makes a part of the price of a salmon 同様に as 給料 and 利益（をあげる）. In some parts of Scotland a few poor people make a 貿易（する） of 集会, along the sea-shore, those little variegated 石／投石するs 一般的に known by the 指名する of Scotch Pebbles. The price which is paid to them by the 石／投石する-切断機，沿岸警備艇 is altogether the 給料 of their 労働; neither rent nor 利益（をあげる） make any part of it.

But the whole price of any 商品／必需品 must still finally 解決する itself into some one or other, or all of those three parts; as whatever part of it remains after 支払う／賃金ing the rent of the land, and the price of the whole 労働 雇うd in raising, 製造業の, and bringing it to market, must やむを得ず be 利益（をあげる） to somebody.

As the price or exchangeable value of every particular 商品／必需品, taken 分かれて, 解決するs itself into some one or other or all of those three parts; so that of all the 商品／必需品s which compose the whole 年次の produce of the 労働 of every country, taken complexly, must 解決する itself into the same three parts, and be parcelled out の中で different inhabitants of the country, either as the 給料 of their 労働, the 利益（をあげる）s of their 在庫／株, or the rent of their land. The whole of what is 毎年 either collected or produced by the 労働 of every society, or what comes to the same thing, the whole price of it, is in this manner 初めは 分配するd の中で some of its different members. 給料, 利益（をあげる）, and rent, are the three 初めの sources of all 歳入 同様に as of all exchangeable value. All other 歳入 is 最終的に derived from some one or other of these.

Whoever derives his 歳入 from a 基金 which is his own, must draw it either from his 労働, from his 在庫／株, or from his land. The 歳入 derived from 労働 is called 給料. That derived from 在庫／株, by the person who manages or 雇うs it, is called 利益（をあげる）. That derived from it by the person who does not 雇う it himself, but lends it to another, is called the 利益／興味 or the use of money. It is the 補償（金） which the borrower 支払う／賃金s to the 貸す人, for the 利益（をあげる） which he has an 適切な時期 of making by the use of the money. Part of that 利益（をあげる） 自然に belongs to the borrower, who runs the 危険 and takes the trouble of 雇うing it; and part to the 貸す人, who affords him the 適切な時期 of making this 利益（をあげる）. The 利益／興味 of money is always a derivative 歳入, which, if it is not paid from the 利益（をあげる） which is made by the use of the money, must be paid from some other source of 歳入, unless perhaps the borrower is a spendthrift, who 契約s a second 負債 ーするために 支払う／賃金 the 利益／興味 of the first. The 歳入 which proceeds altogether from land, is called rent, and belongs to the landlord. The 歳入 of the 農業者 is derived partly from his 労働, and partly from his 在庫／株. To him, land is only the 器具 which enables him to earn the 給料 of this 労働, and to make the 利益（をあげる）s of this 在庫／株. All 税金s, and an the 歳入 which is 設立するd upon them, all salaries, 年金s, and annuities of every 肉親，親類d, are 最終的に derived from some one or other of those three 初めの sources of 歳入, and are paid either すぐに or mediately from the 給料 of 労働, the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, or the rent of land.

When those three different sorts of 歳入 belong to different persons, they are readily distinguished; but when they belong to the same they are いつかs confounded with one another, at least in ありふれた language.

A gentleman who farms a part of his own 広い地所, after 支払う／賃金ing the expense of cultivation, should 伸び（る） both the rent of the landlord and the 利益（をあげる） of the 農業者. He is apt to denominate, however, his whole 伸び（る）, 利益（をあげる）, and thus confounds rent with 利益（をあげる）, at least in ありふれた language. The greater part of our North American and West Indian planters are in this 状況／情勢. They farm, the greater part of them, their own 広い地所s, and accordingly we seldom hear of the rent of a 農園, but frequently of its 利益（をあげる）.

ありふれた 農業者s seldom 雇う any overseer to direct the general 操作／手術s of the farm. They 一般に, too, work a good を取り引きする their own 手渡すs, as ploughmen, harrowers, etc. What remains of the 刈る after 支払う／賃金ing the rent, therefore, should not only 取って代わる to them their 在庫／株 雇うd in cultivation, together with its ordinary 利益（をあげる）s, but 支払う／賃金 them the 給料 which are 予定 to them, both as labourers and overseers. Whatever remains, however, after 支払う／賃金ing the rent and keeping up the 在庫／株, is called 利益（をあげる）. But 給料 evidently make a part of it. The 農業者, by saving these 給料, must やむを得ず 伸び（る） them. 給料, therefore, are in this 事例／患者 confounded with 利益（をあげる）.

An 独立した・無所属 製造業者, who has 在庫／株 enough both to 購入（する） 構成要素s, and to 持続する himself till he can carry his work to market, should 伸び（る） both the 給料 of a journeyman who 作品 under a master, and the 利益（をあげる） which that master makes by the sale of the journeyman's work. His whole 伸び（る）s, however, are 一般的に called 利益（をあげる）, and 給料 are, in this 事例／患者 too, confounded with 利益（をあげる）.

A gardener who cultivates his own garden with his own 手渡すs, 部隊s in his own person the three different characters of landlord, 農業者, and labourer. His produce, therefore, should 支払う／賃金 him the rent of the first, the 利益（をあげる） of the second, and the 給料 of the third. The whole, however, is 一般的に considered as the 収入s of his 労働. Both rent and 利益（をあげる） are, in this 事例／患者, confounded with 給料.

As in a civilised country there are but few 商品／必需品s of which the exchangeable value arises from 労働 only, rent and 利益（をあげる） 与える／捧げるing 大部分は to that of the far greater part of them, so the 年次の produce of its 労働 will always be 十分な to 購入（する） or 命令（する） a much greater 量 of 労働 than what 雇うd in raising, 準備するing, and bringing that produce to market. If the society were 毎年 to 雇う all the 労働 which it can 毎年 購入（する）, as the 量 of 労働 would 増加する 大いに every year, so the produce of every 後継するing year would be of vastly greater value than that of the foregoing. But there is no country in which the whole 年次の produce is 雇うd in 持続するing the industrious. The idle everywhere 消費する a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of it; and によれば the different 割合s in which it is 毎年 divided between those two different orders of people, its ordinary or 普通の／平均（する） value must either 毎年 増加する, or 減らす, or continue the same from one year to another.

一時期／支部 VII
Of the Natural and Market Price of 商品／必需品s

There is likewise in every society or neighbourhood an ordinary or 普通の／平均（する） 率 of rent, which is 規制するd too, as I shall show hereafter, partly by the general circumstances of the society or neighbourhood in which the land is 据えるd, and partly by the natural or 改善するd fertility of the land.

These ordinary or 普通の／平均（する） 率s may be called the natural 率s of 給料, 利益（をあげる）, and rent, at the time and place in which they 一般的に 勝つ／広く一帯に広がる.

When the price of any 商品／必需品 is neither more nor いっそう少なく than what is 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the rent of the land, the 給料 of the 労働, and the 利益（をあげる）s of the 在庫／株 雇うd in raising, 準備するing, and bringing it to market, によれば their natural 率s, the 商品／必需品 is then sold for what may be called its natural price.

The 商品／必需品 is then sold 正確に for what it is 価値（がある）, or for what it really costs the person who brings it to market; for though in ありふれた language what is called the prime cost of any 商品／必需品 does not comprehend the 利益（をあげる） of the person who is to sell it again, yet if he sell it at a price which does not 許す him the ordinary 率 of 利益（をあげる） in his neighbourhood, he is evidently a loser by the 貿易（する）; since by 雇うing his 在庫／株 in some other way he might have made that 利益（をあげる）. His 利益（をあげる）, besides, is his 歳入, the proper 基金 of his subsistence. As, while he is 準備するing and bringing the goods to market, he 前進するs to his workmen their 給料, or their subsistence; so he 前進するs to himself, in the same manner, his own subsistence, which is 一般に suitable to the 利益（をあげる） which he may reasonably 推定する／予想する from the sale of his goods. Unless they 産する／生じる him this 利益（をあげる）, therefore, they do not 返す him what they may very 適切に be said to have really cost him.

Though the price, therefore, which leaves him this 利益（をあげる） is not always the lowest at which a 売買業者 may いつかs sell his goods, it is the lowest at which he is likely to sell them for any かなりの time; at least where there is perfect liberty, or where he may change his 貿易（する） as often as he pleases.

The actual price at which any 商品／必需品 is 一般的に sold is called its market price. It may either be above, or below, or 正確に／まさに the same with its natural price.

The market price of every particular 商品／必需品 is 規制するd by the 割合 between the 量 which is 現実に brought to market, and the 需要・要求する of those who are willing to 支払う／賃金 the natural price of the 商品／必需品, or the whole value of the rent, 労働, and 利益（をあげる）, which must be paid ーするために bring it thither. Such people may be called the effectual demanders, and their 需要・要求する the effectual 需要・要求する; since it may be 十分な to effectuate the bringing of the 商品／必需品 to market. It is different from the 絶対の 需要・要求する. A very poor man may be said in some sense to have a 需要・要求する for a coach and six; he might like to have it; but his 需要・要求する is not an effectual 需要・要求する, as the 商品／必需品 can never be brought to market ーするために 満足させる it.

When the 量 of any 商品／必需品 which is brought to market 落ちるs short of the effectual 需要・要求する, all those who are willing to 支払う／賃金 the whole value of the rent, 給料, and 利益（をあげる）, which must be paid ーするために bring it thither, cannot be 供給（する）d with the 量 which they want. Rather than want it altogether, some of them will be willing to give more. A 競争 will すぐに begin の中で them, and the market price will rise more or いっそう少なく above the natural price, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as either the greatness of the 欠陥／不足, or the wealth and wanton 高級な of the competitors, happen to animate more or いっそう少なく the 切望 of the 競争. の中で competitors of equal wealth and 高級な the same 欠陥／不足 will 一般に occasion a more or いっそう少なく eager 競争, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the 取得／買収 of the 商品／必需品 happens to be of more or いっそう少なく importance to them. Hence the exorbitant price of the necessaries of life during the 封鎖 of a town or in a 飢饉.

When the 量 brought to market 越えるs the effectual 需要・要求する, it cannot be all sold to those who are willing to 支払う／賃金 the whole value of the rent, 給料, and 利益（をあげる）, which must be paid ーするために bring it thither. Some part must be sold to those who are willing to 支払う／賃金 いっそう少なく, and the low price which they give for it must 減ずる the price of the whole. The market price will 沈む more or いっそう少なく below the natural price, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the greatness of the 超過 増加するs more or いっそう少なく the 競争 of the 販売人s, or （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as it happens to be more or いっそう少なく important to them to get すぐに rid of the 商品／必需品. The same 超過 in the 輸入 of perishable, will occasion a much greater 競争 than in that of 持続する 商品／必需品s; in the 輸入 of oranges, for example, than in that of old アイロンをかける.

When the 量 brought to market is just 十分な to 供給（する） the effectual 需要・要求する, and no more, the market price 自然に comes to be either 正確に／まさに, or as nearly as can be 裁判官d of, the same with the natural price. The whole 量 upon 手渡す can be 性質の／したい気がして of for this price, and cannot be 性質の／したい気がして of for more. The 競争 of the different 売買業者s 強いるs them all to 受託する of this price, but does not 強いる them to 受託する of いっそう少なく.

The 量 of every 商品／必需品 brought to market 自然に 控訴s itself to the effectual 需要・要求する. It is the 利益／興味 of all those who 雇う their land, 労働, or 在庫／株, in bringing any 商品／必需品 to market, that the 量 never should 越える the effectual 需要・要求する; and it is the 利益／興味 of all other people that it never should 落ちる short of that 需要・要求する.

If at any time it 越えるs the effectual 需要・要求する, some of the 構成要素 parts of its price must be paid below their natural 率. If it is rent, the 利益／興味 of the landlords will すぐに 誘発する them to 身を引く a part of their land; and if it is 給料 or 利益（をあげる）, the 利益／興味 of the labourers in the one 事例／患者, and of their 雇用者s in the other, will 誘発する them to 身を引く a part of their 労働 or 在庫／株 from this 雇用. The 量 brought to market will soon be no more than 十分な to 供給（する） the effectual 需要・要求する. All the different parts of its price will rise to their natural 率, and the whole price to its natural price.

If, on the contrary, the 量 brought to market should at any time 落ちる short of the effectual 需要・要求する, some of the 構成要素 parts of its price must rise above their natural 率. If it is rent, the 利益／興味 of all other landlords will 自然に 誘発する them to 準備する more land for the raising of this 商品／必需品; if it is 給料 or 利益（をあげる）, the 利益／興味 of all other labourers and 売買業者s will soon 誘発する them to 雇う more 労働 and 在庫／株 in 準備するing and bringing it to market. The 量 brought thither will soon be 十分な to 供給（する） the effectual 需要・要求する. All the different parts of its price will soon 沈む to their natural 率, and the whole price to its natural price.

The natural price, therefore, is, as it were, the central price, to which the prices of all 商品／必需品s are continually gravitating. Different 事故s may いつかs keep them 一時停止するd a good 取引，協定 above it, and いつかs 軍隊 them 負かす／撃墜する even somewhat below it. But whatever may be the 障害s which 妨げる them from settling in this centre of repose and continuance, they are 絶えず tending に向かって it.

The whole 量 of 産業 毎年 雇うd ーするために bring any 商品／必需品 to market 自然に 控訴s itself in this manner to the effectual 需要・要求する. It 自然に 目的（とする）s at bringing always that 正確な 量 thither which may be 十分な to 供給（する）, and no more than 供給（する）, that 需要・要求する.

But in some 雇用s the same 量 of 産業 will in different years produce very different 量s of 商品／必需品s; while in others it will produce always the same, or very nearly the same. The same number of labourers in husbandry will, in different years, produce very different 量s of corn, ワイン, oil, hops, etc. But the same number of spinners and weavers will every year produce the same or very nearly the same 量 of linen and woollen cloth. It is only the 普通の／平均（する） produce of the one 種類 of 産業 which can be ふさわしい in any 尊敬（する）・点 to the effectual 需要・要求する; and as its actual produce is frequently much greater and frequently much いっそう少なく than its 普通の／平均（する） produce, the 量 of the 商品／必需品s brought to market will いつかs 越える a good 取引，協定, and いつかs 落ちる short a good 取引，協定, of the effectual 需要・要求する. Even though that 需要・要求する therefore should continue always the same, their market price will be liable to 広大な／多数の／重要な fluctuations, will いつかs 落ちる a good 取引，協定 below, and いつかs rise a good 取引，協定 above their natural price. In the other 種類 of 産業, the produce of equal 量s of 労働 存在 always the same, or very nearly the same, it can be more 正確に／まさに ふさわしい to the effectual 需要・要求する. While that 需要・要求する continues the same, therefore, the market price of the 商品／必需品s is likely to do so too, and to be either altogether, or as nearly as can be 裁判官d of, the same with the natural price. That the price of linen and woolen cloth is liable neither to such たびたび（訪れる） nor to such 広大な／多数の／重要な variations as the price of corn, every man's experience will 知らせる him. The price of the one 種類 of 商品／必需品s 変化させるs only with the variations in the 需要・要求する: that of the other 変化させるs, not only with the variations in the 需要・要求する, but with the much greater and more たびたび（訪れる） variations in the 量 of what is brought to market ーするために 供給（する） that 需要・要求する.

The 時折の and 一時的な fluctuations in the market price of any 商品／必需品 落ちる 主として upon those parts of its price which 解決する themselves into 給料 and 利益（をあげる）. That part which 解決するs itself into rent is いっそう少なく 影響する／感情d by them. A rent 確かな in money is not in the least 影響する／感情d by them either in its 率 or in its value. A rent which consists either in a 確かな 割合 or in a 確かな 量 of the rude produce, is no 疑問 影響する／感情d in its 年一回の value by all the 時折の and 一時的な fluctuations in the market price of that rude produce; but it is seldom 影響する／感情d by them in its 年一回の 率. In settling the 条件 of the 賃貸し（する）, the landlord and 農業者 endeavour, によれば their best judgment, to adjust that 率, not to the 一時的な and 時折の, but to the 普通の／平均（する） and ordinary price of the produce.

Such fluctuations 影響する／感情 both the value and the 率 either of 給料 or of 利益（をあげる）, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the market happens to be either overstocked or understocked with 商品／必需品s or with 労働; with work done, or with work to be done. A public 嘆く／悼むing raises the price of 黒人／ボイコット cloth (with which the market is almost always understocked upon such occasions), and augments the 利益（をあげる）s of the merchants who 所有する any かなりの 量 of it. It has no 影響 upon the 給料 of the weavers. The market is understocked with 商品／必需品s, not with 労働; with work done, not with work to be done. It raises the 給料 of journeymen tailors. The market is here understocked with 労働. There is an effectual 需要・要求する for more 労働, for more work to be done than can be had. It 沈むs the price of coloured silks and cloths, and その為に 減ずるs the 利益（をあげる）s of the merchants who have any かなりの 量 of them upon 手渡す. It 沈むs, too, the 給料 of the workmen 雇うd in 準備するing such 商品／必需品s, for which all 需要・要求する is stopped for six months, perhaps for a twelvemonth. The market is here over-在庫／株d both with 商品／必需品s and with 労働.

But though the market price of every particular 商品／必需品 is in this manner continually gravitating, if one may say so, に向かって the natural price, yet いつかs particular 事故s, いつかs natural 原因（となる）s, and いつかs particular 規則s of police, may, in many 商品／必需品s, keep up the market price, for a long time together, a good 取引，協定 above the natural price.

When by an 増加する in the effectual 需要・要求する, the market price of some particular 商品／必需品 happens to rise a good 取引，協定 above the natural price, those who 雇う their 在庫／株s in 供給（する）ing that market are 一般に careful to 隠す this change. If it was 一般的に known, their 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益（をあげる） would tempt so many new 競争相手s to 雇う their 在庫／株s in the same way that, the effectual 需要・要求する 存在 fully 供給（する）d, the market price would soon be 減ずるd to the natural price, and perhaps for some time even below it. If the market is at a 広大な／多数の／重要な distance from the 住居 of those who 供給（する） it, they may いつかs be able to keep the secret for several years together, and may so long enjoy their 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 利益（をあげる）s without any new 競争相手s. Secrets of this 肉親，親類d, however, it must be 定評のある, can seldom be long kept; and the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 利益（をあげる） can last very little longer than they are kept.

Secrets in 製造（する）s are 有能な of 存在 longer kept than secrets in 貿易（する）. A dyer who has 設立する the means of producing a particular colour with 構成要素s which cost only half the price of those 一般的に made use of, may, with good 管理／経営, enjoy the advantage of his 発見 as long as he lives, and even leave it as a 遺産／遺物 to his posterity. His 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 伸び（る）s arise from the high price which is paid for his 私的な 労働. They 適切に consist in the high 給料 of that 労働. But as they are repeated upon every part of his 在庫／株, and as their whole 量 耐えるs, upon that account, a 正規の／正選手 割合 to it, they are 一般的に considered as 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株.

Such enhancements of the market price are evidently the 影響s of particular 事故s, of which, however, the 操作／手術 may いつかs last for many years together.

Some natural 生産／産物s 要求する such a singularity of 国／地域 and 状況／情勢 that all the land in a 広大な／多数の／重要な country, which is fit for producing them, may not be 十分な to 供給（する） the effectual 需要・要求する. The whole 量 brought to market, therefore, may be 性質の／したい気がして of to those who are willing to give more than what is 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the rent of the land which produced them, together with the 給料 of the 労働, and the 利益（をあげる）s of the 在庫／株 which were 雇うd in 準備するing and bringing them to market, によれば their natural 率s. Such 商品／必需品s may continue for whole centuries together to be sold at this high price; and that part of it which 解決するs itself into the rent of land is in this 事例／患者 the part which is 一般に paid above its natural 率. The rent of the land which affords such singular and esteemed 生産／産物s, like the rent of some vineyards in フラン of a peculiarly happy 国／地域 and 状況／情勢, 耐えるs no 正規の／正選手 割合 to the rent of other 平等に fertile and 平等に 井戸／弁護士席-cultivated land in its neighbourhood. The 給料 of the 労働 and the 利益（をあげる）s of the 在庫／株 雇うd in bringing such 商品／必需品s to market, on the contrary, are seldom out of their natural 割合 to those of the other 雇用s of 労働 and 在庫／株 in their neighbourhood.

Such enhancements of the market price are evidently the 影響 of natural 原因（となる）s which may 妨げる the effectual 需要・要求する from ever 存在 fully 供給（する）d, and which may continue, therefore, to operate for ever.

A monopoly 認めるd either to an individual or to a 貿易（する）ing company has the same 影響 as a secret in 貿易（する） or 製造（する）s. The monopolists, by keeping the market 絶えず understocked, by never fully 供給（する）ing the effectual 需要・要求する, sell their 商品／必需品s much above the natural price, and raise their emoluments, whether they consist in 給料 or 利益（をあげる）, 大いに above their natural 率.

The price of monopoly is upon every occasion the highest which can be got. The natural price, or the price of 解放する／自由な 競争, on the contrary, is the lowest which can be taken, not upon every occasion, indeed, but for any かなりの time together. The one is upon every occasion the highest which can be squeezed out of the 買い手s, or which, it is supposed, they will 同意 to give: the other is the lowest which the 販売人s can 一般的に afford to take, and at the same time continue their 商売／仕事.

The 排除的 特権s of 会社／団体s, 法令s of 見習いの身分制度, and all those 法律s which 抑制する, in particular 雇用s, the 競争 to a smaller number than might さもなければ go into them, have the same 傾向, though in a いっそう少なく degree. They are a sort of 大きくするd monopolies, and may frequently, for ages together, and in whole classes of 雇用s, keep up the market price of particular 商品／必需品s above the natural price, and 持続する both the 給料 of the 労働 and the 利益（をあげる）s of the 在庫／株 雇うd about them somewhat above their natural 率.

Such enhancements of the market price may last as long as the 規則s of police which give occasion to them.

The market price of any particular 商品／必需品, though it may continue long above, can seldom continue long below its natural price. Whatever part of it was paid below the natural 率, the persons whose 利益／興味 it 影響する／感情d would すぐに feel the loss, and would すぐに 身を引く either so much land, or so much 労働, or so much 在庫／株, from 存在 雇うd about it, that the 量 brought to market would soon be no more than 十分な to 供給（する） the effectual 需要・要求する. Its market price, therefore, would soon rise to the natural price. This at least would be the 事例／患者 where there was perfect liberty.

The same 法令s of 見習いの身分制度 and other 会社／団体 法律s indeed, which, when a 製造（する） is in 繁栄, enable the workman to raise his 給料 a good 取引，協定 above their natural 率, いつかs 強いる him, when it decays, to let them 負かす／撃墜する a good 取引，協定 below it. As in the one 事例／患者 they 除外する many people from his 雇用, so in the other they 除外する him from many 雇用s. The 影響 of such 規則s, however, is not 近づく so 持続する in 沈むing the workman's 給料 below, as in raising them above their natural 率. Their 操作／手術 in the one way may 耐える for many centuries, but in the other it can last no longer than the lives of some of the workmen who were bred to the 商売／仕事 in the time of its 繁栄. When they are gone, the number of those who are afterwards educated to the 貿易（する） will 自然に 控訴 itself to the effectual 需要・要求する. The police must be as violent as that of Indostan or 古代の Egypt (where every man was bound by a 原則 of 宗教 to follow the 占領／職業 of his father, and was supposed to commit the most horrid sacrilege if he changed it for another), which can in any particular 雇用, and for several 世代s together, 沈む either the 給料 of 労働 or the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 below their natural 率.

This is all that I think necessary to be 観察するd at 現在の 関心ing the deviations, whether 時折の or 永久の, of the market price of 商品／必需品s from the natural price.

The natural price itself 変化させるs with the natural 率 of each of its 構成要素 parts, of 給料, 利益（をあげる）, and rent; and in every society this 率 変化させるs によれば their circumstances, によれば their riches or poverty, their 前進するing, 静止している, or 拒絶する／低下するing 条件. I shall, in the four に引き続いて 一時期／支部s, endeavour to explain, as fully and distinctly as I can, the 原因（となる）s of those different variations.

First, I shall endeavour to explain what are the circumstances which 自然に 決定する the 率 of 給料, and in what manner those circumstances are 影響する／感情d by the riches or poverty, by the 前進するing, 静止している, or 拒絶する／低下するing 明言する／公表する of the society.

Secondly, I shall endeavour to show what are the circumstances which 自然に 決定する the 率 of 利益（をあげる）, and in what manner, too, those circumstances are 影響する／感情d by the like variations in the 明言する／公表する of the society.

Though pecuniary 給料 and 利益（をあげる） are very different in the different 雇用s of 労働 and 在庫／株; yet a 確かな 割合 seems 一般的に to take place between both the pecuniary 給料 in all the different 雇用s of 労働, and the pecuniary 利益（をあげる）s in all the different 雇用s of 在庫／株. This 割合, it will appear hereafter, depends partly upon the nature of the different 雇用s, and partly upon the different 法律s and 政策 of the society in which they are carried on. But though in many 尊敬（する）・点s 扶養家族 upon the 法律s and 政策, this 割合 seems to be little 影響する／感情d by the riches or poverty of that society; by its 前進するing, 静止している, or 拒絶する／低下するing 条件; but to remain the same or very nearly the same in all those different 明言する／公表するs. I shall, in the third place, endeavour to explain all the different circumstances which 規制する this 割合.

In the fourth and last place, I shall endeavour to show what are the circumstances which 規制する the rent of land, and which either raise or lower the real price of all the different 実体s which it produces.

一時期／支部 VIII
Of the 給料 of 労働

In that 初めの 明言する／公表する of things, which に先行するs both the （資金の）充当／歳出 of land and the accumulation of 在庫／株, the whole produce of 労働 belongs to the labourer. He has neither landlord nor master to 株 with him.

Had this 明言する／公表する continued, the 給料 of 労働 would have augmented with all those 改良s in its 生産力のある 力／強力にするs to which the 分割 of 労働 gives occasion. All things would 徐々に have become cheaper. They would have been produced by a smaller 量 of 労働; and as the 商品／必需品s produced by equal 量s of 労働 would 自然に in this 明言する／公表する of things be 交流d for one another, they would have been 購入（する）d likewise with the produce of a smaller 量.

But though all things would have become cheaper in reality, in 外見 many things might have become dearer than before, or have been 交流d for a greater 量 of other goods. Let us suppose, for example, that in the greater part of 雇用s the 生産力のある 力／強力にするs of 労働 had been 改善するd to ten 倍の, or that a day's 労働 could produce ten times the 量 of work which it had done 初めは; but that in a particular 雇用 they had been 改善するd, only to 二塁打, or that a day's 労働 could produce only twice the 量 of work which it had done before. In 交流ing the produce of a day's 労働 in the greater part of 雇用s for that of a day's 労働 in this particular one, ten times the 初めの 量 of work in them would 購入（する） only twice the 初めの 量 in it. Any particular 量 in it, therefore, a 続けざまに猛撃する 負わせる, for example, would appear to be five times dearer than before. In reality, however, it would be twice as cheap. Though it 要求するd five times the 量 of other goods to 購入（する） it, it would 要求する only half the 量 of 労働 either to 購入（する） or to produce it. The 取得／買収, therefore, would be twice as 平易な as before.

But this 初めの 明言する／公表する of things, in which the labourer enjoyed the whole produce of his own 労働, could not last beyond the first introduction of the （資金の）充当／歳出 of land and the accumulation of 在庫／株. It was at an end, therefore, long before the most かなりの improvemen The produce of almost all other 労働 is liable to the like deduction of 利益（をあげる）. In all arts and 製造（する）s the greater part of the workmen stand in need of a master to 前進する them the 構成要素s of their work, and their 給料 and 維持／整備 till it be 完全にするd. He 株 in the produce of their 労働, or in the value which it 追加するs to the 構成要素s upon which it is bestowed; and in this 株 consists his 利益（をあげる）.

It いつかs happens, indeed, that a 選び出す／独身 独立した・無所属 workman has 在庫／株 十分な both to 購入（する） the 構成要素s of his work, and to 持続する himself till it be 完全にするd. He is both master and workman, and enjoys the whole produce of his own 労働, or the whole value which it 追加するs to the 構成要素s upon which it is bestowed. It 含むs what are usually two 際立った 歳入s, belonging to two 際立った persons, the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, and the 給料 of 労働.

Such 事例／患者s, however, are not very たびたび（訪れる）, and in every part of Europe, twenty workmen serve under a master for one that is 独立した・無所属; and the 給料 of 労働 are everywhere understood to be, what they usually are, when the labourer is one person, and the owner of the 在庫／株 which 雇うs him another.

What are the ありふれた 給料 of 労働, depends everywhere upon the 契約 usually made between those two parties, whose 利益／興味s are by no means the same. The workmen 願望（する） to get as much, the masters to give as little as possible. The former are 性質の／したい気がして to 連合させる ーするために raise, the latter ーするために lower the 給料 of 労働.

It is not, however, difficult to 予知する which of the two parties must, upon all ordinary occasions, have the advantage in the 論争, and 軍隊 the other into a 同意／服従 with their 条件. The masters, 存在 より小数の in number, can 連合させる much more easily; and the 法律, besides, 権限を与えるs, or at least does not 禁じる their combinations, while it 禁じるs those of the workmen. We have no 行為／法令／行動するs of 議会 against 連合させるing to lower the price of work; but many against 連合させるing to raise it. In all such 論争s the masters can 持つ／拘留する out much longer. A landlord, a 農業者, a master 製造業者, a merchant, though they did not 雇う a 選び出す／独身 workman, could 一般に live a year or two upon the 在庫／株s which they have already acquired. Many workmen could not subsist a week, few could subsist a month, and 不十分な any a year without 雇用. In the long run the workman may be as necessary to his master as his master is to him; but the necessity is not so 即座の.

We rarely hear, it has been said, of the combinations of masters, though frequently of those of workmen. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely 連合させる, is as ignorant of the world as of the 支配する. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the 給料 of 労働 above their actual 率. To 侵害する／違反する this combination is everywhere a most 人気がない 活動／戦闘, and a sort of reproach to a master の中で his 隣人s and equals. We seldom, indeed, hear of this combination, because it is the usual, and one may say, the natural 明言する／公表する of things, which nobody ever hears of. Masters, too, いつかs enter into particular combinations to 沈む the 給料 of 労働 even below this 率. These are always 行為／行うd with the 最大の silence and secrecy, till the moment of 死刑執行, and when the workmen 産する／生じる, as they いつかs do, without 抵抗, though 厳しく felt by them, they are never heard of by other people. Such combinations, however, are frequently resisted by a contrary 防御の combination of the workmen; who いつかs too, without any 誘発 of this 肉親，親類d, 連合させる of their own （許可，名誉などを）与える to raise the price of their 労働. Their usual pretences are, いつかs the high price of 準備／条項s; いつかs the 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益（をあげる） which their masters make by their work. But whether their combinations be 不快な／攻撃 or 防御の, they are always abundantly heard of. ーするために bring the point to a 迅速な 決定／判定勝ち（する）, they have always 頼みの綱 to the loudest clamour, and いつかs to the most shocking 暴力／激しさ and 乱暴／暴力を加える. They are desperate, and 行為／法令／行動する with the folly and extravagance of desperate men, who must either 餓死する, or 脅す their masters into an 即座の 同意／服従 with their 需要・要求するs. The masters upon these occasions are just as clamorous upon the other 味方する, and never 中止する to call aloud for the 援助 of the civil 治安判事, and the rigorous 死刑執行 of those 法律s which have been 制定するd with so much severity against the combinations of servants, labourers, and journeymen. The workmen, accordingly, very seldom derive any advantage from the 暴力／激しさ of those tumultuous combinations, which, partly from the interposition of the civil 治安判事, partly from the necessity superior steadiness of the masters, partly from the necessity which the greater part of the workmen are under of submitting for the sake of 現在の subsistence, 一般に end in nothing, but the 罰 or 廃虚 of the ringleaders.

But though in 論争s with their workmen, masters must 一般に have the advantage, there is, however, a 確かな 率 below which it seems impossible to 減ずる, for any かなりの time, the ordinary 給料 even of the lowest 種類 of 労働.

A man must always live by his work, and his 給料 must at least be 十分な to 持続する him. They must even upon most occasions be somewhat more; さもなければ it would be impossible for him to bring up a family, and the race of such workmen could not last beyond the first 世代. Mr. Cantillon seems, upon this account, to suppose that the lowest 種類 of ありふれた labourers must everywhere earn at least 二塁打 their own 維持／整備, in order that one with another they may be enabled to bring up two children; the 労働 of the wife, on account of her necessary 出席 on the children, 存在 supposed no more than 十分な to 供給する for herself. But one half the children born, it is 計算するd, die before the age of manhood. The poorest labourers, therefore, によれば this account, must, one with another, 試みる／企てる to 後部 at least four children, in order that two may have an equal chance of living to that age. But the necessary 維持／整備 of four children, it is supposed, may be nearly equal to that of one man. The 労働 of an able-団体／死体d slave, the same author 追加するs, is 計算するd to be 価値（がある） 二塁打 his 維持／整備; and that of the meanest labourer, he thinks, cannot be 価値（がある） いっそう少なく than that of an ablebodied slave. Thus far at least seems 確かな , that, ーするために bring up a family, the 労働 of the husband and wife together must, even in the lowest 種類 of ありふれた 労働, be able to earn something more than what is 正確に necessary for their own 維持／整備; but in what 割合, whether in that above について言及するd, or in any other, I shall not take upon me to 決定する.

There are 確かな circumstances, however, which いつかs give the labourers an advantage, and enable them to raise their 給料 かなり above this 率; evidently the lowest which is 一貫した with ありふれた humanity.

When in any country the 需要・要求する for those who live by 給料, labourers, journeymen, servants of every 肉親，親類d, is continually 増加するing; when every year furnishes 雇用 for a greater number than had been 雇うd the year before, the workmen have no occasion to 連合させる ーするために raise their 給料. The scarcity of 手渡すs occasions a 競争 の中で masters, who 企て，努力，提案 against one another, ーするために get workmen, and thus 任意に break through the natural combination of masters not to raise 給料.

The 需要・要求する for those who live by 給料, it is evident, cannot 増加する but in 割合 to the 増加する of the 基金s which are 運命にあるd for the 支払い（額） of 給料. These 基金s are of two 肉親，親類d; first, 歳入 which is over and above what is necessary for the 維持／整備; and, secondly, the 在庫／株 which is over and above what is necessary for the 雇用 of their masters.

When the landlord, annuitant, or monied man, has a greater 歳入 than what he 裁判官s 十分な to 持続する his own family, he 雇うs either the whole or a part of the 黒字／過剰 in 持続するing one or more menial servants. 増加する this 黒字／過剰, and he will 自然に 増加する the number of those servants.

When an 独立した・無所属 workman, such as a weaver or shoemaker, has got more 在庫／株 than what is 十分な to 購入（する） the 構成要素s of his own work, and to 持続する himself till he can 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of it, he 自然に 雇うs one or more journeymen with the 黒字／過剰, ーするために make a 利益（をあげる） by their work. 増加する this 黒字／過剰, and he will 自然に 増加する the number of his journeymen.

The 需要・要求する for those who live by 給料, therefore, やむを得ず 増加するs with the 増加する of the 歳入 and 在庫／株 of every country, and cannot かもしれない 増加する without it. The 増加する of 歳入 and 在庫／株 is the 増加する of 国家の wealth. The 需要・要求する for those who live by 給料, therefore, 自然に 増加するs with the 増加する of 国家の wealth, and cannot かもしれない 増加する without it.

It is not the actual greatness of 国家の wealth, but its continual 増加する, which occasions a rise in the 給料 of 労働. It is not, accordingly, in the richest countries, but in the most 栄えるing, or in those which are growing rich the fastest, that the 給料 of 労働 are highest. England is certainly, in the 現在の times, a much richer country than any part of North America. The 給料 of 労働, however, are much higher in North America than in any part of England. In the 州 of New York, ありふれた labourers earn three shillings and sixpence 通貨, equal to two shillings 英貨の／純銀の, a day; ship carpenters, ten shillings and sixpence 通貨, with a pint of rum 価値（がある） sixpence 英貨の／純銀の, equal in all to six shillings and sixpence 英貨の／純銀の; house carpenters and bricklayers, eight shillings 通貨, equal to four shillings and sixpence 英貨の／純銀の; journeymen tailors, five shillings 通貨, equal to about two shillings and tenpence 英貨の／純銀の. These prices are all above the London price; and 給料 are said to be as high in the other 植民地s as in New York. The price of 準備／条項s is everywhere in North America much lower than in England. A dearth has never been known there. In the worst seasons they have always had a 十分なこと for themselves, though いっそう少なく for exportation. If the money price of 労働, therefore, be higher than it is anywhere in the mother country, its real price, the real 命令（する） of the necessaries and conveniencies of life which it 伝えるs to the labourer must be higher in a still greater 割合.

But though North America is not yet so rich as England, it is much more 栄えるing, and 前進するing with much greater rapidity to the その上の 取得／買収 of riches. The most 決定的な 示す of the 繁栄 of any country is the 増加する of the number of its inhabitants. In 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain, and most other European countries, they are not supposed to 二塁打 in いっそう少なく than five hundred years. In the British 植民地s in North America, it has been 設立する that they 二塁打 in twenty or five-and-twenty years. Nor in the 現在の times is this 増加する principally 借りがあるing to the continual 輸入 of new inhabitants, but to the 広大な／多数の／重要な multiplication of the 種類. Those who live to old age, it is said, frequently see there from fifty to a hundred, and いつかs many more, 子孫s from their own 団体／死体. 労働 is there so 井戸／弁護士席 rewarded that a 非常に／多数の family of children, instead of 存在 a burthen, is a source of opulence and 繁栄 to the parents. The 労働 of each child, before it can leave their house, is 計算するd to be 価値（がある） a hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs （疑いを）晴らす 伸び（る） to them. A young 未亡人 with four or five young children, who, の中で the middling or inferior 階級s of people in Europe, would have so little chance for a second husband, is there frequently 法廷，裁判所d as a sort of fortune. The value of children is the greatest of all 激励s to marriage. We cannot, therefore, wonder that the people in North America should 一般に marry very young. Notwithstanding the 広大な／多数の／重要な 増加する occasioned by such 早期に marriages, there is a continual （民事の）告訴 of the scarcity of 手渡すs in North America. The 需要・要求する for labourers, the 基金s 運命にあるd for 持続するing them, 増加する, it seems, still faster than they can find labourers to 雇う.

Though the wealth of a country should be very 広大な／多数の／重要な, yet if it has been long 静止している, we must not 推定する／予想する to find the 給料 of 労働 very high in it. The 基金s 運命にあるd for the 支払い（額） of 給料, the 歳入 and 在庫／株 of its inhabitants, may be of the greatest extent; but if they have continued for several centuries of the same, or very nearly of the same extent, the number of labourers 雇うd every year could easily 供給（する）, and even more than 供給（する）, the number 手配中の，お尋ね者 the に引き続いて year. There could seldom be any scarcity of 手渡すs, nor could the masters be 強いるd to 企て，努力，提案 against one another ーするために get them. The 手渡すs, on the contrary, would, in this 事例／患者, 自然に multiply beyond their 雇用. There would be a constant scarcity of 雇用, and the labourers would be 強いるd to 企て，努力，提案 against one another ーするために get it. If in such a country the 給料 of 労働 had ever been more than 十分な to 持続する the labourer, and to enable him to bring up a family, the 競争 of the labourers and the 利益／興味 of the masters would soon 減ずる them to this lowest 率 which is 一貫した with ありふれた humanity. 中国 has been long one of the richest, that is, one of the most fertile, best cultivated, most industrious, and most populous countries in world. It seems, however, to have been long 静止している. Marco Polo, who visited it more than five hundred years ago, 述べるs its cultivation, 産業, and populousness, almost in the same 条件 in which they are 述べるd by travellers in the 現在の times. It had perhaps, even long before his time, acquired that 十分な complement of riches which the nature of its 法律s and 会・原則s 許すs it to acquire. The accounts of all travellers, inconsistent in many other 尊敬（する）・点s, agree in the low 給料 of 労働, and in the difficulty which a labourer finds in bringing up a family in 中国. If by digging the ground a whole day he can get what will 購入（する） a small 量 of rice in the evening, he is contented. The 条件 of artificers is, if possible, still worse. Instead of waiting indolently in their workhouses, for the calls of their 顧客s, as in Europe, they are continually running about the streets with the 道具s of their 各々の 貿易（する）s, 申し込む／申し出ing their service, and as it were begging 雇用. The poverty of the lower 階級s of people in 中国 far より勝るs that of the most beggarly nations in Europe. In the neighbourhood of Canton many hundred, it is 一般的に said, many thousand families have no habitation on the land, but live 絶えず in little fishing boats upon the rivers and canals. The subsistence which they find there is so scanty that they are eager to fish up the nastiest garbage thrown overboard from any European ship. Any carrion, the carcase of a dead dog or cat, for example, though half putrid and stinking, is as welcome to them as the most wholesome food to the people of other countries. Marriage is encouraged in 中国, not by the profitableness of children, but by the liberty of destroying them. In all 広大な／多数の／重要な towns several are every night exposed in the street, or 溺死するd like puppies in the water. The 業績／成果 of this horrid office is even said to be the avowed 商売／仕事 by which some people earn their subsistence.

中国, however, though it may perhaps stand still, does not seem to go backwards. Its towns are nowhere 砂漠d by their inhabitants. The lands which had once been cultivated are nowhere neglected. The same or very nearly the same 年次の 労働 must therefore continue to be 成し遂げるd, and the 基金s 運命にあるd for 持続するing it must not, その結果, be sensibly 減らすd. The lowest class of labourers, therefore, notwithstanding their scanty subsistence, must some way or another make 転換 to continue their race so far as to keep up their usual numbers.

But it would be さもなければ in a country where the 基金s 運命にあるd for the 維持／整備 of 労働 were sensibly decaying. Every year the 需要・要求する for servants and labourers would, in all the different classes of 雇用s, be いっそう少なく than it had been the year before. Many who had been bred in the superior classes, not 存在 able to find 雇用 in their own 商売／仕事, would be glad to 捜し出す it in the lowest. The lowest class 存在 not only overstocked with its own workmen, but with the overflowings of all the other classes, the 競争 for 雇用 would be so 広大な／多数の／重要な in it, as to 減ずる the 給料 of 労働 to the most 哀れな and scanty subsistence of the labourer. Many would not be able to find 雇用 even upon these hard 条件, but would either 餓死する, or be driven to 捜し出す a subsistence either by begging, or by the perpetration perhaps of the greatest enormities. Want, 飢饉, and mortality would すぐに 勝つ／広く一帯に広がる in that class, and from thence 延長する themselves to all the superior classes, till the number of inhabitants in the country was 減ずるd to what could easily be 持続するd by the 歳入 and 在庫／株 which remained in it, and which had escaped either the tyranny or calamity which had destroyed the 残り／休憩（する）. This perhaps is nearly the 現在の 明言する／公表する of Bengal, and of some other of the English 解決／入植地s in the East Indies. In a fertile country which had before been much depopulated, where subsistence, その結果, should not be very difficult, and where, notwithstanding, three or four hundred thousand people die of hunger in one year, we may be 保証するd that the 基金s 運命にあるd for the 維持／整備 of the 労働ing poor are 急速な／放蕩な decaying. The difference between the genius of the British 憲法 which 保護するs and 治める／統治するs North America, and that of the 商業の company which 抑圧するs and domineers in the East Indies, cannot perhaps be better illustrated than by the different 明言する／公表する of those countries.

The 自由主義の reward of 労働, therefore, as it is the necessary 影響, so it is the natural symptom of 増加するing 国家の wealth. The scanty 維持／整備 of the 労働ing poor, on the other 手渡す, is the natural symptom that things are at a stand, and their 餓死するing 条件 that they are going 急速な／放蕩な backwards.

In 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain the 給料 of 労働 seem, in the 現在の times, to be evidently more than what is 正確に necessary to enable the labourer to bring up a family. ーするために 満足させる ourselves upon this point it will not be necessary to enter into any tedious or doubtful 計算／見積り of what may be the lowest sum upon which it is possible to do this. There are many plain symptoms that the 給料 of 労働 are nowhere in this country 規制するd by this lowest 率 which is 一貫した with ありふれた humanity.

First, in almost every part of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain there is a distinction, even in the lowest 種類 of 労働, between summer and winter 給料. Summer 給料 are always highest. But on account of the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の expense of 燃料, the 維持／整備 of a family is most expensive in winter. 給料, therefore, 存在 highest when this expense is lowest, it seems evident that they are not 規制するd by what is necessary for this expense; but by the 量 and supposed value of the work. A labourer, it may be said indeed, せねばならない save part of his summer 給料 ーするために defray his winter expense; and that through the whole year they do not 越える what is necessary to 持続する his family through the whole year. A slave, however, or one 絶対 扶養家族 on us for 即座の subsistence, would not be 扱う／治療するd in this manner. His daily subsistence would be 割合d to his daily necessities.

Secondly, the 給料 of 労働 do not in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain fluctuate with the price of 準備／条項s. These 変化させる everywhere from year to year, frequently from month to month. But in many places the money price of 労働 remains uniformly the same いつかs for half a century together. If in these places, therefore, the 労働ing poor can 持続する their families in dear years, they must be at their 緩和する in times of 穏健な plenty, and in affluence in those of 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の cheapness. The high price of 準備／条項s during these ten years past has not in many parts of the kingdom been …を伴ってd with any sensible rise in the money price of 労働. It has, indeed, in some, 借りがあるing probably more to the 増加する of the 需要・要求する for 労働 than to that of the price of 準備／条項s.

Thirdly, as the price of 準備／条項s 変化させるs more from year to year than the 給料 of 労働, so, on the other 手渡す, the 給料 of 労働 変化させる more from place to place than the price of 準備／条項s. The prices of bread and butcher's meat are 一般に the same or very nearly the same through the greater part of the 部隊d Kingdom. These and most other things which are sold by 小売, the way in which the 労働ing poor buy all things, are 一般に fully as cheap or cheaper in 広大な／多数の／重要な towns than in the remoter parts of the country, for 推論する／理由s which I shall have occasion to explain hereafter. But the 給料 of 労働 in a 広大な／多数の／重要な town and its neighbourhood are frequently a fourth or a fifth part, twenty or five-and-twenty per cent higher than at a few miles distance. Eighteenpence a day may be reckoned the ありふれた price of 労働 in London and its neighbourhood. At a few miles distance it 落ちるs to fourteen and fifteenpence. Tenpence may be reckoned its price in Edinburgh and its neighbourhood. At a few miles distance it 落ちるs to eightpence, the usual price of ありふれた 労働 through the greater part of the low country of Scotland, where it 変化させるs a good 取引，協定 いっそう少なく than in England. Such a difference of prices, which it seems is not always 十分な to 輸送（する） a man from one parish to another, would やむを得ず occasion so 広大な／多数の／重要な a transportation of the most bulky 商品／必需品s, not only from one parish to another, but from one end of the kingdom, almost from one end of the world to the other, as would soon 減ずる them more nearly to a level. After all that has been said of the levity and inconstancy of human nature, it appears evidently from experience that a man is of all sorts of luggage the most difficult to be 輸送（する）d. If the 労働ing poor, therefore, can 持続する their families in those parts of the kingdom where the price of 労働 is lowest, they must be in affluence where it is highest.

Fourthly, the variations in the price of 労働 not only do not correspond either in place or time with those in the price of 準備／条項s, but they are frequently やめる opposite.

穀物, the food of the ありふれた people, is dearer in Scotland than in England, whence Scotland receives almost every year very large 供給（する）s. But English corn must be sold dearer in Scotland, the country to which it is brought, than in England, the country from which it comes; and in 割合 to its 質 it cannot be sold dearer in Scotland than the Scotch corn that comes to the same market in 競争 with it. The 質 of 穀物 depends 主として upon the 量 of flour or meal which it 産する／生じるs at the mill, and in this 尊敬（する）・点 English 穀物 is so much superior to the Scotch that, though often dearer in 外見, or in 割合 to the 手段 of its 本体，大部分／ばら積みの, it is 一般に cheaper in reality, or in 割合 to its 質, or even to the 手段 of its 負わせる. The price of 労働, on the contrary, is dearer in England than in Scotland. If the 労働ing poor, therefore, can 持続する their families in the one part of the 部隊d Kingdom, they must be in affluence in the other. Oatmeal indeed 供給（する）s the ありふれた people in Scotland with the greatest and the best part of their food, which is in general much inferior to that of their 隣人s of the same 階級 in England. This difference, however, in the 方式 of their subsistence is not the 原因（となる）, but the 影響 of the difference in their 給料; though, by a strange misapprehension, I have frequently heard it 代表するd as the 原因（となる）. It is not because one man keeps a coach while his 隣人 walks 進行中で that the one is rich and the other poor; but because the one is rich he keeps a coach, and because the other is poor he walks 進行中で.

During the course of the last century, taking one year with another, 穀物 was dearer in both parts of the 部隊d Kingdom than during that of the 現在の. This is a 事柄 of fact which cannot now 収容する／認める of any reasonable 疑問; and the proof of it is, if possible, still more 決定的な with regard to Scotland than with regard to England. It is in Scotland supported by the 証拠 of the public fiars, 年次の valuations made upon 誓い, によれば the actual 明言する／公表する of the markets, of all the different sorts of 穀物 in every different 郡 of Scotland. If such direct proof could 要求する any collateral 証拠 to 確認する it, I would 観察する that this has likewise been the 事例／患者 in フラン, and probably in most other parts of Europe. With regard to フラン there is the clearest proof. But though it is 確かな that in both parts of the 部隊d Kingdom 穀物 was somewhat dearer in the last century than in the 現在の, it is 平等に 確かな that 労働 was much cheaper. If the 労働ing poor, therefore, could bring up their families then, they must be much more at their 緩和する now. In the last century, the most usual day-給料 of ありふれた 労働 through the greater part of Scotland were sixpence in summer and fivepence in winter. Three shillings a week, the same price very nearly, still continues to be paid in some parts of the Highlands and Western Islands. Through the greater part of the low country the most usual 給料 of ありふれた 労働 are now eightpence a day; tenpence, いつかs a shilling about Edinburgh, in the 郡s which 国境 upon England, probably on account of that neighbourhood, and in a few other places where there has lately been a かなりの rise in the 需要・要求する for 労働, about Glasgow, Carron, Ayrshire, etc. In England the 改良s of 農業, 製造（する）s, and 商業 began much earlier than in Scotland. The 需要・要求する for 労働, and その結果 its price, must やむを得ず have 増加するd with those 改良s. In the last century, accordingly, 同様に as in the 現在の, the 給料 of 労働 we re higher in England than in Scotland. They have risen, too, かなり since that time, though, on account of the greater variety of 給料 paid there in different places, it is more difficult to ascertain how much. In 1614, the 支払う／賃金 of a foot 兵士 was the same as in the 現在の times, eightpence a day. When it was first 設立するd it would 自然に be 規制するd by the usual 給料 of ありふれた labourers, the 階級 of people from which foot 兵士s are 一般的に drawn. Lord 長，指導者 司法（官） Hales, who wrote in the time of Charles II, 計算するs the necessary expense of a labourer's family, consisting of six persons, the father and mother, two children able to do something, and two not able, at ten shillings a week, or twenty-six 続けざまに猛撃するs a year. If they cannot earn this by their 労働, they must make it up, he supposes, either by begging or stealing. He appears to have 問い合わせd very carefully into this 支配する. In 1688, Mr. Gregory King, whose 技術 in political arithmetic is so much extolled by Doctor Davenant, 計算するd the ordinary income of labourers and out-servants to be fifteen 続けざまに猛撃するs a year to a family, which he supposed to consist, one with another, of three and a half persons. His 計算／見積り, therefore, though different in 外見, corresponds very nearly at 底（に届く） with that of 裁判官 Hales. Both suppose the 週刊誌 expense of such families to be about twenty pence a 長，率いる. Both the pecuniary income and expense of such families have 増加するd かなり since that time through the greater part of the kingdom; in some places more, and in some いっそう少なく; though perhaps 不十分な anywhere so much as some 誇張するd accounts of the 現在の 給料 of 労働 have lately 代表するd them to the public. The price of 労働, it must be 観察するd, cannot be ascertained very 正確に anywhere, different prices 存在 often paid at the same place and for the same sort of 労働, not only によれば the different abilities of the workmen, but によれば the easiness or hardness of the masters. Where 給料 are not 規制する d by 法律, all that we can pretend to 決定する is what are the most usual; and experience seems to show that 法律 can never 規制する them 適切に, though it has often pretended to do so.

The real recompense of 労働, the real 量 of the necessaries and conveniences of life which it can procure to the labourer, has, during the course of the 現在の century, 増加するd perhaps in a still greater 割合 than its money price. Not only 穀物 has become somewhat cheaper, but many other things from which the industrious poor derive an agreeable and wholesome variety of food have become a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 cheaper. Potatoes, for example, do not at 現在の, through the greater part of the kingdom, cost half the price which they used to do thirty or forty years ago. The same thing may be said of turnips, carrots, cabbages; things which were 以前は never raised but by the spade, but which are now 一般的に raised by the plough. All sort of garden stuff, too, has become cheaper. The greater part of the apples and even of the onions 消費するd in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain were in the last century 輸入するd from Flanders. The 広大な／多数の／重要な 改良s in the coarser 製造（する）s of both linen and woollen cloth furnish the labourers with cheaper and better 着せる／賦与するing; and those in the 製造（する）s of the coarser metals, with cheaper and better 器具s of 貿易（する）, 同様に as with many agreeable and convenient pieces of 世帯 furniture. Soap, salt, candles, leather, and fermented アルコール飲料s have, indeed, become a good 取引，協定 dearer; 主として from the 税金s which have been laid upon them. The 量 of these, however, which the 労働ing poor are under any necessity of 消費するing, is so very small, that the 増加する in their price does not 補償する the diminution in that of so many other things. The ありふれた （民事の）告訴 that 高級な 延長するs itself even to the lowest 階級s of the people, and that the 労働ing poor will not now be contented with the same food, 着せる／賦与するing, and 宿泊するing which 満足させるd them in former times, may 納得させる us that it is not the money price of 労働 only, but its real recompense, which has augmented.

Is this 改良 in the circumstances of the lower 階級s of the people to be regarded as an advantage or as an inconveniency to the society? The answer seems at first sight abundantly plain. Servants, labourers, and workmen of different 肉親，親類d, （不足などを）補う the far greater part of every 広大な／多数の／重要な political society. But what 改善するs the circumstances of the greater part can never be regarded as an inconveniency to the whole. No society can surely be 繁栄するing and happy, of which the far greater part of the members are poor and 哀れな. It is but 公正，普通株主権, besides, that they who 料金d, 着せる／賦与する, and 宿泊する the whole 団体／死体 of the people, should have such a 株 of the produce of their own 労働 as to be themselves tolerably 井戸／弁護士席 fed, 着せる／賦与するd, and 宿泊するd.

Poverty, though it no 疑問 discourages, does not always 妨げる marriage. It seems even to be favourable to 世代. A half-餓死するd Highland woman frequently 耐えるs more than twenty children, while a pampered 罰金 lady is often incapable of 耐えるing any, and is 一般に exhausted by two or three. Barrenness, so たびたび（訪れる） の中で women of fashion, is very rare の中で those of inferior 駅／配置する. 高級な in the fair sex, while it inflames perhaps the passion for enjoyment, seems always to 弱める, and frequently to destroy altogether, the 力／強力にするs of 世代.

But poverty, though it does not 妨げる the 世代, is 極端に unfavourable to the 後部ing of children. The tender 工場／植物 is produced, but in so 冷淡な a 国／地域 and so 厳しい a 気候, soon withers and dies. It is not uncommon, I have been frequently told, in the Highlands of Scotland for a mother who has borne twenty children not to have two alive. Several officers of 広大な／多数の／重要な experience have 保証するd me, that so far from 新採用するing their 連隊, they have never been able to 供給（する） it with 派手に宣伝するs and fifes from all the 兵士s' children that were born in it. A greater number of 罰金 children, however, is seldom seen anywhere than about a barrack of 兵士s. Very few of them, it seems, arrive at the age of thirteen or fourteen. In some places one half the children born die before they are four years of age; in many places before they are seven; and in almost all places before they are nine or ten. This 広大な／多数の／重要な mortality, however, will everywhere be 設立する 主として の中で the children of the ありふれた people, who cannot afford to tend them with the same care as those of better 駅／配置する. Though their marriages are 一般に more 実りの多い／有益な than those of people of fashion, a smaller 割合 of their children arrive at 成熟. In foundling hospitals, and の中で the children brought up by parish charities, the mortality is still greater than の中で those of the ありふれた people.

Every 種類 of animals 自然に multiplies in 割合 to the means of their subsistence, and no 種類 can ever multiply beyond it. But in civilised society it is only の中で the inferior 階級s of people that the scantiness of subsistence can 始める，決める 限界s to the その上の multiplication of the human 種類; and it can do so in no other way than by destroying a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the children which their 実りの多い／有益な marriages produce.

The 自由主義の reward of 労働, by enabling them to 供給する better for their children, and その結果 to bring up a greater number, 自然に tends to 広げる and 延長する those 限界s. It deserves to be 発言／述べるd, too, that it やむを得ず does this as nearly as possible in the 割合 which the 需要・要求する for 労働 要求するs. If this 需要・要求する is continually 増加するing, the reward of 労働 must やむを得ず encourage in such a manner the marriage and multiplication of labourers, as may enable them to 供給（する） that continually 増加するing 需要・要求する by a continually 増加するing 全住民. If the reward should at any time be いっそう少なく than what was requisite for this 目的, the 欠陥／不足 of 手渡すs would soon raise it; and if it should at any time be more, their 過度の multiplication would soon lower it to this necessary 率. The market would be so much understocked with 労働 in the one 事例／患者, and so much overstocked in the other, as would soon 軍隊 支援する its price to that proper 率 which the circumstances of the society 要求するd. It is in this manner that the 需要・要求する for men, like that for any other 商品／必需品, やむを得ず 規制するs the 生産／産物 of men; quickens it when it goes on too slowly, and stops it when it 前進するs too 急速な／放蕩な. It is this 需要・要求する which 規制するs and 決定するs the 明言する／公表する of propagation in all the different countries of the world, in North America, in Europe, and in 中国; which （判決などを）下すs it 速く 進歩／革新的な in the first, slow and 漸進的な in the second, and altogether 静止している in the last.

The wear and 涙／ほころび of a slave, it has been said, is at the expense of his master; but that of a 解放する／自由な servant is at his own expense. The wear and 涙／ほころび of the latter, however, is, in reality, as much at the expense of his master as that of the former. The 給料 paid to journeymen and servants of every 肉親，親類d must be such as may enable them, one with another, to continue the race of journeymen and servants, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as the 増加するing, 減らすing, or 静止している 需要・要求する of the society may happen to 要求する. But though the wear and 涙／ほころび of a 解放する／自由な servant be 平等に at the expense of his master, it 一般に costs him much いっそう少なく than that of a slave. The 基金 運命にあるd for 取って代わるing or 修理ing, if I may say so, the wear and 涙／ほころび of the slave, is 一般的に managed by a negligent master or careless overseer. That 運命にあるd for 成し遂げるing the same office with regard to the 解放する／自由な man, is managed by the 解放する／自由な man himself. The disorders which 一般に 勝つ／広く一帯に広がる in the economy of the rich, 自然に introduce themselves into the 管理／経営 of the former: the strict frugality and parsimonious attention of the poor as 自然に 設立する themselves in that of the latter. Under such different 管理／経営, the same 目的 must 要求する very different degrees of expense to 遂行する／発効させる it. It appears, accordingly, from the experience of all ages and nations, I believe, that the work done by freemen comes cheaper in the end than that 成し遂げるd by slaves. It is 設立する to do so even at Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, where the 給料 of ありふれた 労働 are so very high.

The 自由主義の reward of 労働, therefore, as it is the 影響 of 増加するing wealth, so it is the 原因（となる） of 増加するing 全住民. To complain of it is to lament over the necessary 影響 and 原因（となる） of the greatest public 繁栄.

It deserves to be 発言／述べるd, perhaps, that it is in the 進歩／革新的な 明言する／公表する, while the society is 前進するing to the その上の 取得／買収, rather than when it has acquired its 十分な complement of riches, that the 条件 of the 労働ing poor, of the 広大な／多数の／重要な 団体／死体 of the people, seems to be the happiest and the most comfortable. It is hard in the 静止している, and 哀れな in the 拒絶する／低下するing 明言する／公表する. The 進歩／革新的な 明言する／公表する is in reality the cheerful and the hearty 明言する／公表する to all the different orders of the society. The 静止している is dull; the 拒絶する／低下するing, melancholy.

The 自由主義の reward of 労働, as it encourages the propagation, so it 増加するs the 産業 of the ありふれた people. The 給料 of 労働 are the 激励 of 産業, which, like every other human 質, 改善するs in 割合 to the 激励 it receives. A plentiful subsistence 増加するs the bodily strength of the labourer, and the comfortable hope of bettering his 条件, and of ending his days perhaps in 緩和する and plenty, animates him to 発揮する that strength to the 最大の. Where 給料 are high, accordingly, we shall always find the workmen more active, diligent, and expeditious than where they are low: in England, for example, than in Scotland; in the neighbourhood of 広大な／多数の／重要な towns than in remote country places. Some workmen, indeed, when they can earn in four days what will 持続する them through the week, will be idle the other three. This, however, is by no means the 事例／患者 with the greater part. Workmen, on the contrary, when they are liberally paid by the piece, are very apt to overwork themselves, and to 廃虚 their health and 憲法 in a few years. A carpenter in London, and in some other places, is not supposed to last in his 最大の vigour above eight years. Something of the same 肉親，親類d happens in many other 貿易（する）s, in which the workmen are paid by the piece, as they 一般に are in 製造（する）s, and even in country 労働, wherever 給料 are higher than ordinary. Almost every class of artificers is 支配する to some peculiar infirmity occasioned by 過度の 使用／適用 to their peculiar 種類 of work. Ramuzzini, an 著名な Italian 内科医, has written a particular 調書をとる／予約する 関心ing such 病気s. We do not reckon our 兵士s the most industrious 始める，決める of people の中で us. Yet when 兵士s have been 雇うd in some particular sorts of work, and liberally paid by the piece, their officers have frequently been 強いるd to 規定する with the undertaker, that they should not be 許すd to earn above a 確かな sum every day, によれば the 率 at which they were paid. Till this 規定 was made, 相互の emulation and the 願望（する） of greater 伸び（る） frequently 誘発するd them to overwork themselves, and to 傷つける their health by 過度の 労働. 過度の 使用／適用 during four days of the week is frequently the real 原因（となる） of the idleness of the other three, so much and so loudly complained of. 広大な／多数の／重要な 労働, either of mind or 団体／死体, continued for several days together, is in most men 自然に followed by a 広大な／多数の／重要な 願望（する） of 緩和, which, if not 抑制するd by 軍隊 or by some strong necessity, is almost irresistible. It is the call of nature, which 要求するs to be relieved by some indulgence, いつかs of 緩和する only, but いつかs, too, of dissipation and 転換. If it is not 従うd with, the consequences are often dangerous, and いつかs 致命的な, and such as almost always, sooner or later, brings on the peculiar infirmity of the 貿易（する）. If masters would always listen to the dictates of 推論する／理由 and humanity, they have frequently occasion rather to 穏健な than to animate the 使用／適用 of many of their workmen. It will be 設立する, I believe, in every sort of 貿易（する）, that the man who 作品 so moderately as to be able to work 絶えず not only 保存するs his health the longest, but, in the course of the year, 遂行する／発効させるs the greatest 量 of work.

In cheap years, it is pretended, workmen are 一般に more idle, and in dear ones more industrious than ordinary. A plentiful subsistence, therefore, it has been 結論するd, relaxes, and a scanty one quickens their 産業. That a little more plenty than ordinary may （判決などを）下す some workmen idle, cannot 井戸／弁護士席 be 疑問d; but that it should have this 影響 upon the greater part, or that men in general should work better when they are ill fed than when they are 井戸／弁護士席 fed, when they are disheartened than when they are in good spirits, when they are frequently sick than when they are 一般に in good health, seems not very probable. Years of dearth, it is to be 観察するd, are 一般に の中で the ありふれた people years of sickness and mortality, which cannot fail to 減らす the produce of their 産業.

In years of plenty, servants frequently leave their masters, and 信用 their subsistence to what they can make by their own 産業. But the same cheapness of 準備／条項s, by 増加するing the 基金 which is 運命にあるd for the 維持／整備 of servants, encourages masters, 農業者s 特に, to 雇う a greater number. 農業者s upon such occasions 推定する／予想する more 利益（をあげる） from their corn by 持続するing a few more 労働ing servants than by selling it at a low price in the market. The 需要・要求する for servants 増加するs, while the number of those who 申し込む／申し出 to 供給（する） that 需要・要求する 減らすs. The price of 労働, therefore, frequently rises in cheap years.

In years of scarcity, the difficulty and 不確定 of subsistence make all such people eager to return to service. But the high price of 準備／条項s, by 減らすing the 基金s 運命にあるd for the 維持／整備 of servants, 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせるs masters rather to 減らす than to 増加する the number of those they have. In dear years, too, poor 独立した・無所属 workmen frequently 消費する the little 在庫／株s with which they had used to 供給（する） themselves with the 構成要素s of their work, and are 強いるd to become journeymen for subsistence. More people want 雇用 than can easily get it; many are willing to take it upon lower 条件 than ordinary, and the 給料 of both servants and journeymen frequently 沈む in dear years.

Masters of all sorts, therefore, frequently make better 取引s with their servants in dear than in cheap years, and find them more humble and 扶養家族 in the former than in the latter. They 自然に, therefore, commend the former as more favourable to 産業. Landlords and 農業者s, besides, two of the largest classes of masters, have another 推論する／理由 for 存在 pleased with dear years. The rents of the one and the 利益（をあげる）s of the other depend very much upon the price of 準備／条項s. Nothing can be more absurd, however, than to imagine that men in general should work いっそう少なく when they work for themselves, than when they work for other people. A poor 独立した・無所属 workman will 一般に be more industrious than even a journeyman who 作品 by the piece. The one enjoys the whole produce of his own 産業; the other 株 it with his master. The one, in his separate 独立した・無所属 明言する／公表する, is いっそう少なく liable to the 誘惑s of bad company, which in large manufactories so frequently 廃虚 the morals of the other. The 優越 of the 独立した・無所属 workman over those servants who are 雇うd by the month or by the year, and whose 給料 and 維持／整備 are the same whether they do much or do little, is likely to be still greater. Cheap years tend to 増加する the 割合 of 独立した・無所属 workmen to journeymen and servants of all 肉親，親類d, and dear years to 減らす it.

A French author of 広大な／多数の／重要な knowledge and ingenuity, Mr. Messance, receiver of the taillies in the 選挙 of St. Etienne, endeavours to show that the poor do more work in cheap than in dear years, by comparing the 量 and value of the goods made upon those different occasions in three different 製造（する）s; one of coarse woollens carried on at Elbeuf; one of linen, and another of silk, both which 延長する through the whole generality of Rouen. It appears from his account, which is copied from the 登録（する）s of the public offices, that the 量 and value of the goods made in all those three 製造（する）s has 一般に been greater in cheap than in dear years; and that it has always been greatest in the cheapest, and least in the dearest years. All the three seem to be 静止している 製造（する）s, or which, though their produce may 変化させる somewhat from year to year, are upon the whole neither going backwards nor 今後s.

The 製造（する） of linen in Scotland, and that of coarse woollens in the West Riding of Yorkshire, are growing 製造（する）s, of which the produce is 一般に, though with some variations, 増加するing both in 量 and value. Upon 診察するing, however, the accounts which have been published of their 年次の produce, I have not been able to 観察する that its variations have had any sensible 関係 with the dearness or cheapness of the seasons. In 1740, a year of 広大な／多数の／重要な scarcity, both 製造（する）s, indeed, appear to have 拒絶する／低下するd very かなり. But in 1756, another year of 広大な／多数の／重要な scarcity, the Scotch 製造（する） made more than ordinary 前進するs. The Yorkshire 製造（する）, indeed, 拒絶する／低下するd, and its produce did not rise to what it had been in 1755 till 1766, after the 廃止する of the American Stamp 行為／法令／行動する. In that and the に引き続いて year it 大いに 越えるd what it had ever been before, and it has continued to 前進する ever since.

The produce of all 広大な／多数の／重要な 製造（する）s for distant sale must やむを得ず depend, not so much upon the dearness or cheapness of the seasons in the countries where they are carried on as upon the circumstances which 影響する／感情 the 需要・要求する in the countries where they are 消費するd; upon peace or war, upon the 繁栄 or declension of other 競争相手 製造（する）s, and upon the good or bad humour of their 主要な／長／主犯 顧客s. A 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の work, besides, which is probably done in cheap years, never enters the public 登録（する）s of 製造（する）s. The men servants who leave their masters become 独立した・無所属 labourers. The women return to their parents, and 一般的に spin ーするために make 着せる／賦与するs for themselves and their families. Even the 独立した・無所属 workmen do not always work for public sale, but are 雇うd by some of their 隣人s in 製造（する）s for family use. The produce of their 労働, therefore, frequently makes no 人物／姿／数字 in those public 登録（する）s of which the 記録，記録的な／記録するs are いつかs published with so much parade, and from which our merchants and 製造業者s would often vainly pretend to 発表する the 繁栄 or declension of the greatest empires.

Though the variations in the price of 労働 not only do not always correspond with those in the price of 準備／条項s, but are frequently やめる opposite, we must not, upon this account, imagine that the price of 準備／条項s has no 影響（力） upon that of 労働. The money price of 労働 is やむを得ず 規制するd by two circumstances; the 需要・要求する for 労働, and the price of the necessaries and conveniences of life. The 需要・要求する for 労働, （許可，名誉などを）与えるing as it happens to be 増加するing, 静止している, or 拒絶する／低下するing, or to 要求する an 増加するing, 静止している, or 拒絶する／低下するing 全住民, 決定するs the 量 of the necessaries and conveniencies of life which must be given to the labourer; and the money price of 労働 is 決定するd by what is requisite for 購入（する）ing this 量. Though the money price of 労働, therefore, is いつかs high where the price of 準備／条項s is low, it would be still higher, the 需要・要求する continuing the same, if the price of 準備／条項s was high.

It is because the 需要・要求する for 労働 増加するs in years of sudden and 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の plenty, and 減らすs in those of sudden and 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の scarcity, that the money price of 労働 いつかs rises in the one and 沈むs in the other.

In a year of sudden and 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の plenty, there are 基金s in the 手渡すs of many of the 雇用者s of 産業 十分な to 持続する and 雇う a greater number of industrious people than had been 雇うd the year before; and this 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の number cannot always be had. Those masters, therefore, who want more workmen 企て，努力，提案 against one another, ーするために get them, which いつかs raises both the real and the money price of their 労働.

The contrary of this happens in a year of sudden and 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の scarcity. The 基金s 運命にあるd for 雇うing 産業 are いっそう少なく than they had been the year before. A かなりの number of people are thrown out of 雇用, who 企て，努力，提案 against one another, ーするために get it, which いつかs lowers both the real and the money price of 労働. In 1740, a year of 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の scarcity, many people were willing to work for 明らかにする subsistence. In the 後継するing years of plenty, it was more difficult to get labourers and servants.

The scarcity of a dear year, by 減らすing the 需要・要求する for 労働, tends to lower its price, as the high price of 準備／条項s tends to raise it. The plenty of a cheap year, on the contrary, by 増加するing the 需要・要求する, tends to raise the price of 労働, as the cheapness of 準備／条項s tends to lower it. In the ordinary variations of the price of 準備／条項s those two opposite 原因（となる）s seem to counterbalance one another, which is probably in part the 推論する／理由 why the 給料 of 労働 are everywhere so much more 安定した and 永久の than the price of 準備／条項s.

The 増加する in the 給料 of 労働 やむを得ず 増加するs the price of many 商品／必需品s, by 増加するing that part of it which 解決するs itself into 給料, and so far tends to 減らす their 消費 both at home and abroad. The same 原因（となる）, however, which raises the 給料 of 労働, the 増加する of 在庫／株, tends to 増加する its 生産力のある 力／強力にするs, and to make a smaller 量 of 労働 produce a greater 量 of work. The owner of the 在庫／株 which 雇うs a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of labourers, やむを得ず endeavours, for his own advantage, to make such a proper 分割 and 配当 of 雇用 that they may be enabled to produce the greatest 量 of work possible. For the same 推論する／理由, he endeavours to 供給（する） them with the best 機械／機構 which either he or they can think of. What takes place の中で the labourers in a particular workhouse takes place, for the same 推論する／理由, の中で those of a 広大な／多数の／重要な society. The greater their number, the more they 自然に divide themselves into different classes and subdivisions of 雇用. More 長，率いるs are 占領するd in inventing the most proper 機械／機構 for 遂行する／発効させるing the work of each, and it is, therefore, more likely to be invented. There are many 商品／必需品s, therefore, which, in consequence of these 改良s, come to be produced by so much いっそう少なく 労働 than before that the 増加する of its price is more than 補償するd by the diminution of its 量.

一時期／支部 IX
Of the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株

The 増加する of 在庫／株, which raises 給料, tends to lower 利益（をあげる）. When the 在庫／株s of many rich merchants are turned into the same 貿易（する）, their 相互の 競争 自然に tends to lower its 利益（をあげる）; and when there is a like 増加する of 在庫／株 in all the different 貿易（する）s carried on in the same society, the same 競争 must produce the same 影響 in them all.

It is not 平易な, it has already been 観察するd, to ascertain what are the 普通の／平均（する） 給料 of 労働 even in a particular place, and at a particular time. We can, even in this 事例／患者, seldom 決定する more than what are the most usual 給料. But even this can seldom be done with regard to the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株. 利益（をあげる） is so very fluctuating that the person who carries on a particular 貿易（する） cannot always tell you himself what is the 普通の／平均（する） of his 年次の 利益（をあげる）. It is 影響する／感情d not only by every variation of price in the 商品／必需品s which he 取引，協定s in, but by the good or bad fortune both of his 競争相手s and of his 顧客s, and by a thousand other 事故s to which goods when carried either by sea or by land, or even when 蓄える／店d in a 倉庫／問屋, are liable. It 変化させるs, therefore, not only from year to year, but from day to day, and almost from hour to hour. To ascertain what is the 普通の／平均（する） 利益（をあげる） of all the different 貿易（する）s carried on in a 広大な／多数の／重要な kingdom must be much more difficult; and to 裁判官 of what it may have been 以前は, or in remote periods of time, with any degree of precision, must be altogether impossible.

But though it may be impossible to 決定する, with any degree of precision, what are or were the 普通の／平均（する） 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, either in the 現在の or in 古代の times, some notion may be formed of them from the 利益／興味 of money. It may be laid 負かす／撃墜する as a maxim, that wherever a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 can be made by the use of money, a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 will 一般的に be given for the use of it; and that wherever little can be made by it, いっそう少なく will 一般的に be given for it. （許可，名誉などを）与えるing, therefore, as the usual market 率 of 利益／興味 変化させるs in any country, we may be 保証するd that the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 must 変化させる with it, must 沈む as it 沈むs, and rise as it rises. The 進歩 of 利益／興味, therefore, may lead us to form some notion of the 進歩 of 利益（をあげる）.

By the 37th of Henry VIII all 利益／興味 above ten per cent was 宣言するd unlawful. More, it seems, had いつかs been taken before that. In the 統治する of Edward VI 宗教的な zeal 禁じるd all 利益／興味. This 禁止, however, like all others of the same 肉親，親類d, is said to have produced no 影響, and probably rather 増加するd than 減らすd the evil of usury. The 法令 of Henry VIII was 生き返らせるd by the 13th of Elizabeth, c. 8, and ten per cent continued to be the 合法的な 率 of 利益／興味 till the 21st of James I, when it was 制限するd to eight per cent. It was 減ずるd to six per cent soon after the 復古／返還, and by the 12th of Queen Anne to five per cent. All these different statutory 規則s seem to have been made with 広大な／多数の／重要な propriety. They seem to have followed and not to have gone before the market 率 of 利益／興味, or the 率 at which people of good credit usually borrowed. Since the time of Queen Anne, five per cent seems to have been rather above than below the market 率. Before the late war, the 政府 borrowed at three per cent; and people of good credit in the 資本／首都, and in many other parts of the kingdom, at three and a half, four, and four and a half per cent.

Since the time of Henry VIII the wealth and 歳入 of the country have been continually 前進するing, and, in the course of their 進歩, their pace seems rather to have been 徐々に 加速するd than retarded. They seem not only to have been going on, but to have been going on faster and faster. The 給料 of 労働 have been continually 増加するing during the same period, and in the greater part of the different 支店s of 貿易（する） and 製造（する）s the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 have been 減らすing.

It 一般に 要求するs a greater 在庫／株 to carry on any sort of 貿易（する） in a 広大な／多数の／重要な town than in a country village. The 広大な／多数の／重要な 在庫／株s 雇うd in every 支店 of 貿易（する）, and the number of rich competitors, 一般に 減ずる the 率 of 利益（をあげる） in the former below what it is in the latter But the 給料 of 労働 are 一般に higher in a 広大な／多数の／重要な town than in a country village. In a 栄えるing town the people who have 広大な／多数の／重要な 在庫／株s to 雇う frequently cannot get the number of workmen they want, and therefore 企て，努力，提案 against one another ーするために get as many as they can, which raises the 給料 of 労働, and lowers the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株. In the remote parts of the country there is frequently not 在庫／株 十分な to 雇う all the people, who therefore 企て，努力，提案 against one another ーするために get 雇用, which lowers the 給料 of 労働 and raises the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株.

In Scotland, though the 合法的な 率 of 利益／興味 is the same as in England, the market 率 is rather higher. People of the best credit there seldom borrow under five per cent. Even 私的な 銀行業者s in Edinburgh give four per cent upon their promissory 公式文書，認めるs, of which 支払い（額） either in whole or in part may be 需要・要求するd at 楽しみ. 私的な 銀行業者s in London give no 利益／興味 for the money which is deposited with them. There are few 貿易（する）s which cannot be carried on with a smaller 在庫／株 in Scotland than in England. The ありふれた 率 of 利益（をあげる）, therefore, must be somewhat greater. The 給料 of 労働, it has already been 観察するd, are lower in Scotland than in England. The country, too, is not only much poorer, but the steps by which it 前進するs to a better 条件, for it is evidently 前進するing, seem to be much slower and more tardy.

The 合法的な 率 of 利益／興味 in フラン has not, during the course of the 現在の century, been always 規制するd by the market 率. In 1720 利益／興味 was 減ずるd from the twentieth to the fiftieth penny, or from five to two per cent. In 1724 it was raised to the thirtieth penny, or to 3 1/3 per cent. In 1725 it was again raised to the twentieth penny, or to five per cent. In 1766, during the 行政 of Mr. Laverdy, it was 減ずるd to the twenty-fifth penny, or to four per cent. The Abbe Terray raised it afterwards to the old 率 of five per cent. The supposed 目的 of many of those violent 削減s of 利益／興味 was to 準備する the way for 減ずるing that of the public 負債s; a 目的 which has いつかs been 遂行する／発効させるd. フラン is perhaps in the 現在の times not so rich a country as England; and though the 合法的な 率 of 利益／興味 has in フラン frequently been lower than in England, the market 率 has 一般に been higher; for there, as in other countries, they have several very 安全な and 平易な methods of 避けるing the 法律. The 利益（をあげる）s of 貿易（する）, I have been 保証するd by British merchants who had 貿易（する）d in both countries, are higher in フラン than in England; and it is no 疑問 upon this account that many British 支配するs choose rather to 雇う their 資本／首都s in a country where 貿易（する） is in 不名誉, than in one where it is 高度に 尊敬（する）・点d. The 給料 of 労働 are lower in フラン than in England. When you go from Scotland to England, the difference which you may 発言／述べる between the dress and countenance of the ありふれた people in the one country and in the other 十分に 示すs the difference in their 条件. The contrast is still greater when you return from フラン. フラン, though no 疑問 a richer country than Scotland, seems not to be going 今後 so 急速な／放蕩な. It is a ありふれた and even a popular opinion in the country that it is going backwards; an opinion which, apprehend, is ill 設立するd even with regard to フラン, but which nobody can かもしれない entertain with regard to Scotland, who sees the country now, and w 売春婦 saw it twenty or thirty years ago.

The 州 of Holland, on the other 手渡す, in 割合 to the extent of its 領土 and the number of its people, is a richer country than England. The 政府 there borrows at two per cent, and 私的な people of good credit at three. The 給料 of 労働 are said to be higher in Holland than in England, and the Dutch, it is 井戸／弁護士席 known, 貿易（する） upon lower 利益（をあげる）s than any people in Europe. The 貿易（する） of Holland, it has been pretended by some people, is decaying, and it may perhaps be true some particular 支店s of it are so. But these symptoms seem to 示す 十分に that there is no general decay. When 利益（をあげる） 減らすs, merchants are very apt to complain that 貿易（する） decays; though the diminution of 利益（をあげる） is the natural 影響 of its 繁栄, or of a greater 在庫／株 存在 雇うd in it than before. During the late war the Dutch 伸び（る）d the whole carrying 貿易（する） of フラン, of which they still 保持する a very large 株. The 広大な／多数の／重要な 所有物／資産／財産 which they 所有する both in the French and English 基金s, about forty millions, it is said, in the latter (in which I 嫌疑者，容疑者／疑う, however, there is a かなりの exaggeration); the 広大な／多数の／重要な sums which they lend to 私的な people in countries where the 率 of 利益／興味 is higher than in their own, are circumstances which no 疑問 論証する the redundancy of their 在庫／株, or that it has 増加するd beyond what they can 雇う with tolerable 利益（をあげる） in the proper 商売／仕事 of their own country: but they do not 論証する that that has 減少（する）d. As the 資本／首都 of a 私的な man, though acquired by a particular 貿易（する）, may 増加する beyond what he can 雇う in it, and yet that 貿易（する） continue to 増加する too; so may likewise the 資本／首都 of a 広大な／多数の／重要な nation.

In our North American and West Indian 植民地s, not only the 給料 of 労働, but the 利益／興味 of money, and その結果 the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, are higher than in England. In the different 植民地s both the 合法的な and the market 率 of 利益／興味 run from six to eight per cent. High 給料 of 労働 and high 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, however, are things, perhaps, which 不十分な ever go together, except in the peculiar circumstances of new 植民地s. A new 植民地 must always for some time be more understocked in 割合 to the extent of its 領土, and more underpeopled in 割合 to the extent of its 在庫／株, than the greater part of other countries. They have more land than they have 在庫／株 to cultivate. What they have, therefore, is 適用するd to the cultivation only of what is most fertile and most favourably 据えるd, the land 近づく the sea shore, and along the banks of navigable rivers. Such land, too, is frequently 購入（する）d at a price below the value even of its natural produce. 在庫／株 雇うd in the 購入（する） and 改良 of such lands must 産する／生じる a very large 利益（をあげる）, and その結果 afford to 支払う／賃金 a very large 利益／興味. Its 早い accumulation in so profitable an 雇用 enables the planter to 増加する the number of his 手渡すs faster than he can find them in a new 解決／入植地. Those whom he can find, therefore, are very liberally rewarded. As the 植民地 増加するs, the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 徐々に 減らす. When the most fertile and best 据えるd lands have been all 占領するd, いっそう少なく 利益（をあげる） can be made by the cultivation of what is inferior both in 国／地域 and 状況／情勢, and いっそう少なく 利益／興味 can be afforded for the 在庫／株 which is so 雇うd. In the greater part of our 植民地s, accordingly, both the 合法的な and the market 率 of 利益／興味 have been かなり 減ずるd during the course of the 現在の century. As riches, 改良, and 全住民 have 増加するd, 利益／興味 has 拒絶する／低下するd. The 給料 of 労働 do not 沈む with the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株. The 需要・要求する for 労働 増加するs with the 増加する of 在庫／株 whatever be its 利益（をあげる）s; and after these are 減らすd, 在庫／株 may not only continue to 増加する, but to 増加する much faster than before. It is with industrious nations who are 前進するing in the 取得／買収 of riches as with industrious individuals. A 広大な／多数の／重要な 在庫／株, though with small 利益（をあげる）s, 一般に 増加するs faster than a small 在庫／株 with 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益（をあげる）s. Money, says the proverb, makes money. When you have got a little, it is often 平易な to get more. The 広大な／多数の／重要な difficulty is to get that little. The 関係 between the 増加する of 在庫／株 and that of 産業, or of the 需要・要求する for useful 労働, has partly been explained already, but will be explained more fully hereafter in 扱う／治療するing of the accumulation of 在庫／株.

The 取得／買収 of new 領土, or of new 支店s of 貿易（する）, may いつかs raise the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, and with them the 利益／興味 of money, even in a country which is 急速な／放蕩な 前進するing in the 取得／買収 of riches. The 在庫／株 of the country not 存在 十分な for the whole 即位 of 商売／仕事, which such 取得／買収s 現在の to the different people の中で whom it is divided, is 適用するd to those particular 支店s only which afford the greatest 利益（をあげる）. Part of what had before been 雇うd in other 貿易（する）s is やむを得ず 孤立した from them, and turned into some of the new and more profitable ones. In all those old 貿易（する）s, therefore, the 競争 comes to be いっそう少なく than before. The market comes to be いっそう少なく fully 供給（する）d with many different sorts of goods. Their price やむを得ず rises more or いっそう少なく, and 産する／生じるs a greater 利益（をあげる） to those who 取引，協定 in them, who can, therefore, afford to borrow at a higher 利益／興味. For some time after the 結論 of the late war, not only 私的な people of the best credit, but some of the greatest companies in London, 一般的に borrowed at five per cent, who before that had not been used to 支払う／賃金 more than four, and four and a half per cent. The 広大な／多数の／重要な 即位 both of 領土 and 貿易（する）, by our 取得／買収s in North America and the West Indies, will 十分に account for this, without supposing any diminution in the 資本／首都 在庫／株 of the society. So 広大な／多数の／重要な an 即位 of new 商売／仕事 to be carried on by the old 在庫／株 must やむを得ず have 減らすd the 量 雇うd in a 広大な／多数の／重要な number of particular 支店s, in which the 競争 存在 いっそう少なく, the 利益（をあげる）s must have been greater. I shall hereafter have occasion to について言及する the 推論する／理由s which 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる me to believe that the 資本／首都 在庫／株 of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain was not 減らすd even by the enormous expense of the late war.

The diminution of the 資本／首都 在庫／株 of the society, or of the 基金s 運命にあるd for the 維持／整備 of 産業, however, as it lowers the 給料 of 労働, so it raises the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, and その結果 the 利益／興味 of money. By the 給料 of 労働 存在 lowered, the owners of what 在庫／株 remains in the society can bring their goods at いっそう少なく expense to market than before, and いっそう少なく 在庫／株 存在 雇うd in 供給（する）ing the market than before, they can sell them dearer. Their goods cost them いっそう少なく, and they get more for them. Their 利益（をあげる）s, therefore, 存在 augmented at both ends, can 井戸／弁護士席 afford a large 利益／興味. The 広大な／多数の／重要な fortunes so suddenly and so easily acquired in Bengal and the other British 解決／入植地s in the East Indies may 満足させる us that, as the 給料 of 労働 are very low, so the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 are very high in those 廃虚d countries. The 利益／興味 of money is proportionably so. In Bengal, money is frequently lent to the 農業者s at forty, fifty, and sixty per cent and the 後継するing 刈る is mortgaged for the 支払い（額）. As the 利益（をあげる）s which can afford such an 利益／興味 must eat up almost the whole rent of the landlord, so such enormous usury must in its turn eat up the greater part of those 利益（をあげる）s. Before the 落ちる of the Roman 共和国, a usury of the same 肉親，親類d seems to have been ありふれた in the 州s, under the ruinous 行政 of their proconsuls. The virtuous Brutus lent money in Cyprus at eight-and-forty per cent as we learn from the letters of Cicero.

In a country which had acquired that 十分な complement of riches which the nature of its 国／地域 and 気候, and its 状況／情勢 with 尊敬（する）・点 to other countries, 許すd it to acquire; which could, therefore, 前進する no その上の, and which was not going backwards, both the 給料 of 労働 and the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 would probably be very low. In a country fully peopled in 割合 to what either its 領土 could 持続する or its 在庫／株 雇う, the 競争 for 雇用 would やむを得ず be so 広大な／多数の／重要な as to 減ずる the 給料 of 労働 to what was barely 十分な to keep up the number of labourers, and, the country 存在 already fully peopled, that number could never be augmented. In a country fully 在庫／株d in 割合 to all the 商売／仕事 it had to transact, as 広大な／多数の／重要な a 量 of 在庫／株 would be 雇うd in every particular 支店 as the nature and extent of the 貿易（する） would 収容する／認める. The 競争, therefore, would everywhere be as 広大な／多数の／重要な, and その結果 the ordinary 利益（をあげる） as low as possible.

But perhaps no country has ever yet arrived at this degree of opulence. 中国 seems to have been long 静止している, and had probably long ago acquired that 十分な complement of riches which is 一貫した with the nature of its 法律s and 会・原則s. But this complement may be much inferior to what, with other 法律s and 会・原則s, the nature of its 国／地域, 気候, and 状況／情勢 might 収容する／認める of. A country which neglects or despises foreign 商業, and which 収容する／認めるs the 大型船s of foreign nations into one or two of its ports only, cannot transact the same 量 of 商売／仕事 which it might do with different 法律s and 会・原則s. In a country too, where, though the rich or the owners of large 資本／首都s enjoy a good 取引，協定 of 安全, the poor or the owners of small 資本／首都s enjoy 不十分な any, but are liable, under the pretence of 司法（官）, to be 略奪するd and plundered at any time by the inferior 蜜柑s, the 量 of 在庫／株 雇うd in all the different 支店s of 商売／仕事 transacted within it can never be equal to what the nature and extent of that 商売／仕事 might 収容する／認める. In every different 支店, the 圧迫 of the poor must 設立する the monopoly of the rich, who, by engrossing the whole 貿易（する） to themselves, will be able to make very large 利益（をあげる）s. Twelve per cent accordingly is said to be the ありふれた 利益／興味 of money in 中国, and the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 must be 十分な to afford this large 利益／興味.

A defect in the 法律 may いつかs raise the 率 of 利益／興味 かなり above what the 条件 of the country, as to wealth or poverty, would 要求する. When the 法律 does not 施行する the 業績／成果 of 契約s, it puts all borrowers nearly upon the same 地盤 with 破産者／倒産したs or people of doubtful credit in better 規制するd countries. The 不確定 of 回復するing his money makes the 貸す人 exact the same usurious 利益／興味 which is usually 要求するd from 破産者／倒産したs. の中で the barbarous nations who overran the western 州s of the Roman empire, the 業績／成果 of 契約s was left for many ages to the 約束 of the 契約ing parties. The 法廷，裁判所s of 司法（官） of their kings seldom intermeddled in it. The high 率 of 利益／興味 which took place in those 古代の times may perhaps be partly accounted for from this 原因（となる）.

When the 法律 禁じるs 利益／興味 altogether, it does not 妨げる it. Many people must borrow, and nobody will lend without such a consideration for the use of their money as is suitable not only to what can be made by the use of it, but to the difficulty and danger of 避けるing the 法律. The high 率 of 利益／興味 の中で all Mahometan nations is accounted for by Mr. Montesquieu, not from their poverty, but partly from this, and partly from the difficulty of 回復するing the money.

The lowest ordinary 率 of 利益（をあげる） must always be something more than what is 十分な to 補償する the 時折の losses to which every 雇用 of 在庫／株 is exposed. It is this 黒字／過剰 only which is neat or （疑いを）晴らす 利益（をあげる）. What is called 甚だしい／１２ダース 利益（をあげる） comprehends frequently, not only this 黒字／過剰, but what is 保持するd for 補償するing such 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の losses. The 利益／興味 which the borrower can afford to 支払う／賃金 is in 割合 to the （疑いを）晴らす 利益（をあげる） only.

The lowest ordinary 率 of 利益／興味 must, in the same manner, be something more than 十分な to 補償する the 時折の losses to which lending, even with tolerable prudence, is exposed. Were it not more, charity or friendship could be the only 動機 for lending.

In a country which had acquired its 十分な complement of riches, where in every particular 支店 of 商売／仕事 there was the greatest 量 of 在庫／株 that could be 雇うd in it, as the ordinary 率 of （疑いを）晴らす 利益（をあげる） would be very small, so the usual market 率 of 利益／興味 which could be afforded out of it would be so low as to （判決などを）下す it impossible for any but the very wealthiest people to live upon the 利益／興味 of their money. All people of small or middling fortunes would be 強いるd to superintend themselves the 雇用 of their own 在庫／株s. It would be necessary that almost every man should be a man of 商売／仕事, or engage in some sort of 貿易（する）. The 州 of Holland seems to be approaching 近づく to this 明言する／公表する. It is there unfashionable not to be a man of 商売／仕事. Necessity makes it usual for almost every man to be so, and custom everywhere 規制するs fashion. As it is ridiculous not to dress, so is it, in some 手段, not to be 雇うd, like other people. As a man of a civil profession seems ぎこちない in a （軍の）野営地，陣営 or a 守備隊, and is even in some danger of 存在 despised there, so does an idle man の中で men of 商売／仕事.

The highest ordinary 率 of 利益（をあげる） may be such as, in the price of the greater part of 商品／必需品s, eats up the whole of what should go to the rent of the land, and leaves only what is 十分な to 支払う／賃金 the 労働 of 準備するing and bringing them to market, によれば the lowest 率 at which 労働 can anywhere be paid, the 明らかにする subsistence of the labourer. The workman must always have been fed in some way or other while he was about the work; but the landlord may not always have been paid. The 利益（をあげる）s of the 貿易（する） which the servants of the East India Company carry on in Bengal may not perhaps be very far from this 率.

The 割合 which the usual market 率 of 利益／興味 せねばならない 耐える to the ordinary 率 of （疑いを）晴らす 利益（をあげる）, やむを得ず 変化させるs as 利益（をあげる） rises or 落ちるs. 二塁打 利益／興味 is in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain reckoned what the merchants call a good, 穏健な, reasonable 利益（をあげる）; 条件 which I apprehend mean no more than a ありふれた and usual 利益（をあげる）. In a country where the ordinary 率 of （疑いを）晴らす 利益（をあげる） is eight or ten per cent, it may be reasonable that one half of it should go to 利益／興味, wherever 商売／仕事 is carried on with borrowed money. The 在庫／株 is at the 危険 of the borrower, who, as it were, insures it to the 貸す人; and four or five per cent may, in the greater part of 貿易（する）s, be both a 十分な 利益（をあげる） upon the 危険 of this 保険, and a 十分な recompense for the trouble of 雇うing the 在庫／株. But the 割合 between 利益／興味 and （疑いを）晴らす 利益（をあげる） might not be the same in countries where the ordinary 率 of 利益（をあげる） was either a good 取引，協定 lower, or a good 取引，協定 higher. If it were a good 取引，協定 lower, one half of it perhaps could not be afforded for 利益／興味; and more might be afforded if it were a good 取引，協定 higher.

In countries which are 急速な／放蕩な 前進するing to riches, the low 率 of 利益（をあげる） may, in the price of many 商品／必需品s, 補償する the high 給料 of 労働, and enable those countries to sell as cheap as their いっそう少なく 栄えるing 隣人s, の中で whom the 給料 of 労働 may be lower.

In reality high 利益（をあげる）s tend much more to raise the price of work than high 給料. If in the linen 製造（する）, for example, the 給料 of the different working people, the flax-dressers, the spinners, the weavers, etc., should, all of them, be 前進するd twopence a day; it would be necessary to 高くする，増す the price of a piece of linen only by a number of twopences equal to the number of people that had been 雇うd about it, multiplied by the number of days during which they had been so 雇うd. That part of the price of the 商品／必需品 which 解決するd itself into 給料 would, through all the different 行う／開催する／段階s of the 製造（する）, rise only in arithmetical 割合 to this rise of 給料. But if the 利益（をあげる）s of all the different 雇用者s of those working people should be raised five per cent, that part of the price of the 商品／必需品 which 解決するd itself into 利益（をあげる） would, through all the different 行う／開催する／段階s of the 製造（する）, rise in geometrical 割合 to this rise of 利益（をあげる）. The 雇用者 of the flaxdressers would in selling his flax 要求する an 付加 five per cent upon the whole value of the 構成要素s and 給料 which he 前進するd to his workmen. The 雇用者 of the spinners would 要求する an 付加 five per cent both upon the 前進するd price of the flax and upon the 給料 of the spinners. And the 雇用者 of the weavers would 要求する a like five per cent both upon the 前進するd price of the linen yarn and upon the 給料 of the weavers. In raising the price of 商品／必需品s the rise of 給料 operates in the same manner as simple 利益／興味 does in the accumulation of 負債. The rise of 利益（をあげる） operates like 構内／化合物 利益／興味. Our merchants and master-製造業者s complain much of the bad 影響s of high 給料 in raising the price, and その為に 少なくなるing the sale of their goods both at home and abroad. They say nothing 関心ing the bad 影響s of high 利益（をあげる）s. They are silent with regard to the pernicious 影響s of their own 伸び（る）s. They complain only of those of other people.

一時期／支部 X
Of 給料 and 利益（をあげる） in the different 雇用s
of 労働 and 在庫／株

Pecuniary 給料 and 利益（をあげる）, indeed, are everywhere in Europe 極端に different によれば the different 雇用s of 労働 and 在庫／株. But this difference arises partly from 確かな circumstances in the 雇用s themselves, which, either really, or at least in the imaginations of men, （不足などを）補う for a small pecuniary 伸び（る） in some, and counterbalance a 広大な／多数の／重要な one in others; and partly from the 政策 of Europe, which nowhere leaves things at perfect liberty.

The particular consideration of those circumstances and of that 政策 will divide this 一時期／支部 into two parts.

Part 1: 不平等s arising from the Nature of the 雇用s themselves

First, the 給料 of 労働 変化させる with the 緩和する or hardship, the cleanliness or dirtiness, the honourableness or dishonourableness of the 雇用. Thus in most places, take the year 一連の会議、交渉／完成する, a journeyman tailor earns いっそう少なく than a journeyman weaver. His work is much easier. A journeyman weaver earns いっそう少なく than a journeyman smith. His work is not always easier, but it is much cleanlier. A journeyman blacksmith, though an artificer, seldom earns so much in twelve hours as a collier, who is only a labourer, does in eight. His work is not やめる so dirty, is いっそう少なく dangerous, and is carried on in daylight, and above ground. Honour makes a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the reward of all honourable professions. In point of pecuniary 伸び（る）, all things considered, they are 一般に under-recompensed, as I shall endeavour to show by and by. 不名誉 has the contrary 影響. The 貿易（する） of a butcher is a 残虐な and an 嫌悪すべき 商売／仕事; but it is in most places more profitable than the greater part of ありふれた 貿易（する）s. The most detestable of all 雇用s, that of public executioner, is, in 割合 to the 量 of work done, better paid than any ありふれた 貿易（する） whatever.

追跡（する）ing and fishing, the most important 雇用s of mankind in the rude 明言する／公表する of society, become in its 前進するd 明言する／公表する their most agreeable amusements, and they 追求する for 楽しみ what they once followed from necessity. In the 前進するd 明言する／公表する of society, therefore, they are all very poor people who follow as a 貿易（する） what other people 追求する as a pastime. Fishermen have been so since the time of Theocritus. A poacher is everywhere a very poor man in 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain. In countries where the rigour of the 法律 苦しむs no poachers, the licensed hunter is not in a much better 条件. The natural taste for those 雇用s makes more people follow them than can live comfortably by them, and the produce of their 労働, in 割合 to its 量, comes always too cheap to market to afford anything but the most scanty subsistence to the labourers.

Disagreeableness and 不名誉 影響する／感情 the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 in the same manner as the 給料 of 労働. The keeper of an inn or tavern, who is never master of his own house, and who is exposed to the brutality of every drunkard, 演習s neither a very agreeable nor a very creditable 商売／仕事. But there is 不十分な any ありふれた 貿易（する） in which a small 在庫／株 産する／生じるs so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 利益（をあげる）.

Secondly, the 給料 of 労働 変化させる with the easiness and cheapness, or the difficulty and expense of learning the 商売／仕事.

When any expensive machine is 築くd, the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の work to be 成し遂げるd by it before it is worn out, it must be 推定する／予想するd, will 取って代わる the 資本／首都 laid out upon it, with at least the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s. A man educated at the expense of much 労働 and time to any of those 雇用s which 要求する 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の dexterity and 技術, may be compared to one of those expensive machines. The work which he learns to 成し遂げる, it must be 推定する／予想するd, over and above the usual 給料 of ありふれた 労働, will 取って代わる to him the whole expense of his education, with at least the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s of an 平等に 価値のある 資本／首都. It must do this, too, in a reasonable time, regard 存在 had to the very uncertain duration of human life, in the same manner as to the more 確かな duration of the machine.

The difference between the 給料 of 技術d 労働 and those of ありふれた 労働 is 設立するd upon this 原則.

The 政策 of Europe considers the 労働 of all mechanics, artificers, and 製造業者s, as 技術d 労働; and that of all country labourers as ありふれた 労働. It seems to suppose that of the former to be of a more nice and delicate nature than that of the latter. It is so perhaps in some 事例／患者s; but in the greater part is it やめる さもなければ, as I shall endeavour to show by and by. The 法律s and customs of Europe, therefore, ーするために qualify any person for 演習ing the one 種類 of 労働, 課す the necessity of an 見習いの身分制度, though with different degrees of rigour in different places. They leave the other 解放する／自由な and open to everybody. During the continuance of the 見習いの身分制度, the whole 労働 of the 見習い工 belongs to his master. In the 合間 he must, in many 事例／患者s, be 持続するd by his parents or relations, and in almost all 事例／患者s must be 着せる／賦与するd by them. Some money, too, is 一般的に given to the master for teaching him his 貿易（する）. They who cannot give money give time, or become bound for more than the usual number of years; a consideration which, though it is not always advantageous to the master, on account of the usual idleness of 見習い工s, is always disadvantageous to the 見習い工. In country 労働, on the contrary, the labourer, while he is 雇うd about the easier, learns the more difficult parts of his 商売／仕事, and his own 労働 持続するs him through all the different 行う／開催する／段階s of his 雇用. It is reasonable, therefore, that in Europe the 給料 of mechanics, artificers, and 製造業者s, should be somewhat higher than those of ありふれた labourers. They are so accordingly, and their superior 伸び（る）s make them in most places be considered as a superior 階級 of people. This 優越, however, is 一般に very small; the daily or 週刊誌 収入s of journeymen in the more ありふれた sorts of 製造（する）s, such as those of plain linen and woollen cloth, 計算するd at an 普通の／平均（する）, are, in most places, very little more than the day 給料 of ありふれた labourers. Their 雇用, indeed, is more 安定した and uniform, and the 優越 of their 収入s, taking the whole year together, may be somewhat greater. It seems evidently, however, to be no greater than what is 十分な to 補償する the superior expense of their education.

Education in the ingenious arts and in the 自由主義の professions is still more tedious and expensive. The pecuniary recompense, therefore, of painters and sculptors, of lawyers and 内科医s, せねばならない be much more 自由主義の; and it is so accordingly.

The 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 seem to be very little 影響する／感情d by the easiness or difficulty of learning the 貿易（する） in which it is 雇うd. All the different ways in which 在庫／株 is 一般的に 雇うd in 広大な／多数の／重要な towns seem, in reality, to be almost 平等に 平易な and 平等に difficult to learn. One 支店 either of foreign or 国内の 貿易（する） cannot 井戸／弁護士席 be a much more intricate 商売／仕事 than another.

Thirdly, the 給料 of 労働 in different 占領／職業s 変化させる with the constancy or inconstancy of 雇用.

雇用 is much more constant in some 貿易（する）s than in others. In the greater part of 製造業者s, a journeyman may be pretty sure of 雇用 almost every day in the year that he is able to work. A mason or bricklayer, on the contrary, can work neither in hard 霜 nor in foul 天候, and his 雇用 at all other times depends upon the 時折の calls of his 顧客s. He is liable, in consequence, to be frequently without any. What he earns, therefore, while he is 雇うd, must not only 持続する him while he is idle, but make him some 補償（金） for those anxious and desponding moments which the thought of so 不安定な a 状況／情勢 must いつかs occasion. Where the 計算するd 収入s of the greater part of 製造業者s, accordingly, are nearly upon a level with the day 給料 of ありふれた labourers, those of masons and bricklayers are 一般に from one half more to 二塁打 those 給料. Where ありふれた labourers earn four and five shillings a week, masons and bricklayers frequently earn seven and eight; where the former earn six, the latter often earn nine and ten; and where the former earn nine and ten, as in London, the latter 一般的に earn fifteen and eighteen. No 種類 of 技術d 労働, however, seems more 平易な to learn than that of masons and bricklayers. Chairmen in London, during the summer season, are said いつかs to be 雇うd as bricklayers. The high 給料 of those workmen, therefore, are not so much the recompense of their 技術, as the 補償（金） for the inconstancy of their 雇用.

A house carpenter seems to 演習 rather a nicer and more ingenious 貿易（する） than a mason. In most places, however, for it is not universally so, his day-給料 are somewhat lower. His 雇用, though it depends much, does not depend so 完全に upon the 時折の calls of his 顧客s; and it is not liable to be interrupted by the 天候.

When the 貿易（する）s which 一般に afford constant 雇用 happen in a particular place not to do so, the 給料 of the workmen always rise a good 取引，協定 above their ordinary 割合 to those of ありふれた 労働. In London almost all journeymen artificers are liable to be called upon and 解任するd by their masters from day to day, and from week to week, in the same manner as day-labourers in other places. The lowest order of artificers, journeymen tailors, accordingly, earn there half a 栄冠を与える a-day, though eighteenpence may be reckoned the 給料 of ありふれた 労働. In small towns and country villages, the 給料 of journeymen tailors frequently 不十分な equal those of ありふれた 労働; but in London they are often many weeks without 雇用, 特に during the summer.

When the inconstancy of 雇用 is 連合させるd with the hardship, disagreeableness and dirtiness of the work, it いつかs raises the 給料 of the most ありふれた 労働 above those of the most skilful artificers. A collier working by the piece is supposed, at Newcastle, to earn 一般的に about 二塁打, and in many parts of Scotland about three times the 給料 of ありふれた 労働. His high 給料 arise altogether from the hardship, disagreeableness, and dirtiness of his work. His 雇用 may, upon most occasions, be as constant as he pleases. The coal-heavers in London 演習 a 貿易（する） which in hardship, dirtiness, and disagreeableness, almost equals that of colliers; and from the 避けられない 不正行為 in the arrivals of coal-ships, the 雇用 of the greater part of them is やむを得ず very inconstant. If colliers, therefore, 一般的に earn 二塁打 and ３倍になる the 給料 of ありふれた 労働, it ought not to seem 不当な that coal-heavers should いつかs earn four and five times those 給料. In the 調査 made into their 条件 a few years ago, it was 設立する that at the 率 at which they were then paid, they could earn from six to ten shillings a day. Six shillings are about four times the 給料 of ありふれた 労働 in London, and in every particular 貿易（する） the lowest ありふれた 収入s may always be considered as those of the far greater number. How extravagant soever those 収入s may appear, if they were more than 十分な to 補償する all the disagreeable circumstances of the 商売／仕事, there would soon be so 広大な／多数の／重要な a number of competitors as, in a 貿易（する） which has no 排除的 特権, would quickly 減ずる them to a lower 率.

The constancy or inconstancy of 雇用 cannot 影響する／感情 the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 in any particular 貿易（する）. Whether the 在庫／株 is or is not 絶えず 雇うd depends. not upon the 貿易（する）, but the 仲買人.

Fourthly, the 給料 of 労働 変化させる accordingly to the small or 広大な／多数の／重要な 信用 which must be reposed in the workmen.

The 給料 of goldsmiths and jewellers are everywhere superior to those of many other workmen, not only of equal, but of much superior ingenuity, on account of the precious 構成要素s with which they are intrusted.

We 信用 our health to the 内科医: our fortune and いつかs our life and 評判 to the lawyer and 弁護士／代理人／検事. Such 信用／信任 could not 安全に be reposed in people of a very mean or low 条件. Their reward must be such, therefore, as may give them that 階級 in the society which so important a 信用 要求するs. The long time and the 広大な／多数の／重要な expense which must be laid out in their education, when 連合させるd with this circumstance, やむを得ず 高める still その上の the price of their 労働.

When a person 雇うs only his own 在庫／株 in 貿易（する）, there is no 信用; and the credit which he may get from other people depends, not upon the nature of his 貿易（する）, but upon their opinion of his fortune, probity, and prudence. The different 率s of 利益（をあげる）, therefore, in the different 支店s of 貿易（する）, cannot arise from the different degrees of 信用 reposed in the 仲買人s.

Fifthly, the 給料 of 労働 in different. 雇用s 変化させる によれば the probability or 起こりそうにない事 of success in them.

The probability that any particular person shall ever be qualified for the 雇用 to which he is educated is very different in different 占領／職業s. In the greater part of mechanic 貿易（する）s, success is almost 確かな ; but very uncertain in the 自由主義の professions. Put your son 見習い工 to a shoemaker, there is little 疑問 of his learning to make a pair of shoes; but send him to 熟考する／考慮する the 法律, it is at least twenty to one if ever he makes such proficiency as will enable him to live by the 商売／仕事. In a perfectly fair 宝くじ, those who draw the prizes せねばならない 伸び（る） all that is lost by those who draw the blanks. In a profession where twenty fail for one that 後継するs, that one せねばならない 伸び（る） all that should have been 伸び（る）d by the 不成功の twenty. The counsellor-at-法律 who, perhaps, at 近づく forty years of age, begins to make something by his profession, せねばならない receive the 天罰, not only of his own so tedious and expensive education, but that of more than twenty others who are never likely to make anything by it. How extravagant soever the 料金s of counsellors-at-法律 may いつかs appear, their real 天罰 is never equal to this. 計算する in any particular place what is likely to be 毎年 伸び（る）d, and what is likely to be 毎年 spent, by all the different workmen in any ありふれた 貿易（する）, such as that of shoemakers or weavers, and you will find that the former sum will 一般に 越える the latter. But make the same computation with regard to all the counsellors and students of 法律, in all the different inns of 法廷，裁判所, and you will find that their 年次の 伸び（る）s 耐える but a very small 割合 to their 年次の expense, even though you 率 the former as high, and the latter as low, as can 井戸／弁護士席 be done. The 宝くじ of the 法律, therefore, is very far from 存在 a perfectly fair 宝くじ; and that, 同様に as many other 自由主義の and honourable professions, are, in point of pecuniary 伸び（る）, evidently under-recompensed.

Those professions keep their level, however, with other 占領／職業s, and, notwithstanding these discouragements, all the most generous and 自由主義の spirits are eager to （人が）群がる into them. Two different 原因（となる）s 与える／捧げる to recommend them. First, the 願望（する） of the 評判 which …に出席するs upon superior excellence in any of them; and, secondly, the natural 信用／信任 which every man has more or いっそう少なく, not only in his own abilities, but in his own good fortune.

To excel in any profession, in which but few arrive at mediocrity, is the most 決定的な 示す of what is called genius or superior talents. The public 賞賛 which …に出席するs upon such distinguished abilities makes always a part of their reward; a greater or smaller in 割合 as it is higher or lower in degree. It makes a かなりの part of that reward in the profession of physic; a still greater perhaps in that of 法律; in poetry and philosophy it makes almost the whole.

There are some very agreeable and beautiful talents of which the 所有／入手 命令（する）s a 確かな sort of 賞賛; but of which the 演習 for the sake of 伸び（る） is considered, whether from 推論する／理由 or prejudice, as a sort of public 売春. The pecuniary recompense, therefore, of those who 演習 them in this manner must be 十分な, not only to 支払う／賃金 for the time, 労働, and expense of acquiring the talents, but for the discredit which …に出席するs the 雇用 of them as the means of subsistence. The exorbitant rewards of players, オペラ-singers, オペラ-ダンサーs, etc., are 設立するd upon those two 原則s; the rarity and beauty of the talents, and the discredit of 雇うing them in this manner. It seems absurd at first sight that we should despise their persons and yet reward their talents with the most profuse liberality. While we do the one, however, we must of necessity do the other. Should the public opinion or prejudice ever alter with regard to such 占領／職業s, their pecuniary recompense would quickly 減らす. More people would 適用する to them, and the 競争 would quickly 減ずる the price of their 労働. Such talents, though far from 存在 ありふれた, are by no means so rare as is imagined. Many people 所有する them in 広大な／多数の／重要な perfection, who disdain to make this use of them; and many more are 有能な of acquiring them, if anything could be made honourably by them.

The overweening conceit which the greater part of men have of their own abilities is an 古代の evil 発言／述べるd by the philosophers and moralists of all ages. Their absurd presumption in their own good fortune has been いっそう少なく taken notice of. It is, however, if possible, still more 全世界の／万国共通の. There is no man living who, when in tolerable health and spirits, has not some 株 of it. The chance of 伸び（る） is by every man more or いっそう少なく overvalued, and the chance of loss is by most men undervalued, and by 不十分な any man, who is in tolerable health and spirits, valued more than it is 価値（がある）.

That the chance of 伸び（る） is 自然に overvalued, we may learn from the 全世界の／万国共通の success of 宝くじs. The world neither ever saw, nor ever will see, a perfectly fair 宝くじ; or one in which the whole 伸び（る） 補償するd the whole loss; because the undertaker could make nothing by it. In the 明言する／公表する 宝くじs the tickets are really not 価値（がある） the price which is paid by the 初めの 加入者s, and yet 一般的に sell in the market for twenty, thirty, and いつかs forty per cent 前進する. The vain hope of 伸び（る）ing some of the 広大な／多数の／重要な prizes is the 単独の 原因（となる） of this 需要・要求する. The soberest people 不十分な look upon it as a folly to 支払う／賃金 a small sum for the chance of 伸び（る）ing ten or twenty thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs; though they know that even that small sum is perhaps twenty or thirty per cent more than the chance is 価値（がある）. In a 宝くじ in which no prize 越えるd twenty 続けざまに猛撃するs, though in other 尊敬（する）・点s it approached much nearer to a perfectly fair one than the ありふれた 明言する／公表する 宝くじs, there would not be the same 需要・要求する for tickets. ーするために have a better chance for some of the 広大な／多数の／重要な prizes, some people 購入（する） several tickets, and others, small 株 in a still greater number. There is not, however, a more 確かな proposition in mathematics than that the more tickets you adventure upon, the more likely you are to be a loser. Adventure upon all the tickets in the 宝くじ, and you lose for 確かな ; and the greater the number of your tickets the nearer you approach to this certainty.

That the chance of loss is frequently undervalued, and 不十分な ever valued more than it is 価値（がある）, we may learn from a very 穏健な 利益（をあげる） of 保険会社s. ーするために make 保険, either from 解雇する／砲火／射撃 or sea-危険, a 貿易（する） at all, the ありふれた 賞与金 must be 十分な to 補償する the ありふれた losses, to 支払う／賃金 the expense of 管理／経営, and to afford such a 利益（をあげる） as might have been drawn from an equal 資本／首都 雇うd in any ありふれた 貿易（する）. The person who 支払う／賃金s no more than this evidently 支払う／賃金s no more than the real value of the 危険, or the lowest price at which he can reasonably 推定する／予想する to insure it. But though many people have made a little money by 保険, very few have made a 広大な／多数の／重要な fortune; and from this consideration alone, it seems evident enough that the ordinary balance of 利益（をあげる） and loss is not more advantageous in this than in other ありふれた 貿易（する）s by which so many people make fortunes. 穏健な, however, as the 賞与金 of 保険 一般的に is, many people despise the 危険 too much to care to 支払う／賃金 it. Taking the whole kingdom at an 普通の／平均（する）, nineteen houses in twenty, or rather perhaps ninety-nine in a hundred, are not insured from 解雇する／砲火／射撃. Sea 危険 is more alarming to the greater part of people, and the 割合 of ships insured to those not insured is much greater. Many fail, however, at all seasons, and even in time of war, without any 保険. This may いつかs perhaps be done without any imprudence. When a 広大な／多数の／重要な company, or even a 広大な／多数の／重要な merchant, has twenty or thirty ships at sea, they may, as it were, insure one another. The 賞与金 saved upon them all may more than 補償する such losses as they are likely to 会合，会う with in the ありふれた course of chances. The neglect of 保険 upon shipping, however, in the same manner as upon houses, is, in most 事例／患者s, the 影響 of no such nice 計算／見積り, but of mere thoughtless rashness and presumptuous contempt of the 危険.

The contempt of 危険 and the presumptuous hope of success are in no period of life more active than at the age at which young people choose their professions. How little the 恐れる of misfortune is then 有能な of balancing the hope of good luck appears still more evidently in the 準備完了 of the ありふれた People to enlist as 兵士s, or to go to sea, than in the 切望 of those of better fashion to enter into what are called the 自由主義の professions.

What a ありふれた 兵士 may lose is obvious enough. Without regarding the danger, however, young volunteers never enlist so readily as at the beginning of a new war; and though they have 不十分な any chance of preferment, they 人物／姿／数字 to themselves, in their youthful fancies, a thousand occasions of acquiring honour and distinction which never occur. These romantic hopes make the whole price of their 血. Their 支払う／賃金 is いっそう少なく than that of ありふれた labourers, and in actual service their 疲労，（軍の）雑役s are much greater.

The 宝くじ of the sea is not altogether so disadvantageous as that of the army. The son of a creditable labourer or artificer may frequently go to sea with his father's 同意; but if he enlists as a 兵士, it is always without it. Other people see some chance of his making something by the one 貿易（する）: nobody but himself sees any of his making anything by the other. The 広大な／多数の／重要な 海軍大将 is いっそう少なく the 反対する of public 賞賛 than the 広大な／多数の／重要な general, and the highest success in the sea service 約束s a いっそう少なく brilliant fortune and 評判 than equal success in the land. The same difference runs through all the inferior degrees of preferment in both. By the 支配するs of precedency a captain in the 海軍 階級s with a 陸軍大佐 in the army; but he does not 階級 with him in the ありふれた estimation. As the 広大な／多数の／重要な prizes in the 宝くじ are いっそう少なく, the smaller ones must be more 非常に／多数の. ありふれた sailors, therefore, more frequently get some fortune and preferment than ありふれた 兵士s; and the hope of those prizes is what principally recommends the 貿易（する）. Though their 技術 and dexterity are much superior to that of almost any artificers, and though their whole life is one continual scene of hardship and danger, yet for all this dexterity and 技術, for all those hardships and dangers, while they remain in the 条件 of ありふれた sailors, they receive 不十分な any other recompense but the 楽しみ of 演習ing the one and of surmounting the other. Their 給料 are not greater than those of ありふれた labourers at the port which 規制するs the 率 of seamen's 給料. As they are continually going from port to port, the 月毎の 支払う／賃金 of those who sail from all the different ports of 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain is more nearly upon a level than that of any other workmen in those different places; and the 率 of the port to and from which the greatest number sail, that is the port of London, 規制するs that of all the 残り／休憩（する）. At London the 給料 of the greater part of the different classes of workmen are about 二塁打 those of the same classes at Edinburgh. But t he sailors who sail from the port of London seldom earn above three or four shillings a month more than those who sail from the port of Leith, and the difference is frequently not so 広大な／多数の／重要な. In time of peace, and in the merchant service, the London price is from a guinea to about seven-and-twenty shillings the calendar month. A ありふれた labourer in London, at the 率 of nine or ten shillings a week, may earn in the calendar month from forty to five-and-forty shillings. The sailor, indeed, over and above his 支払う／賃金, is 供給（する）d with 準備／条項s. Their value, however, may not perhaps always 越える the difference between his 支払う／賃金 and that of the ありふれた labourer; and though it いつかs should, the 超過 will not be （疑いを）晴らす 伸び（る） to the sailor, because he cannot 株 it with his wife and family, whom he must 持続する out of his 給料 at home.

The dangers and hairbreadth escapes of a life of adventures, instead of disheartening young people, seem frequently to recommend a 貿易（する） to them. A tender mother, の中で the inferior 階級s of people, is of afraid to send her son to school at a seaport town, lest the sight of the ships and the conversation and adventures of the sailors should entice him to go to sea. The distant prospect of hazards, from which we can hope to extricate ourselves by courage and 演説（する）／住所, is not disagreeable to us, and does not raise the 給料 of 労働 in any 雇用. It is さもなければ with those in which courage and 演説（する）／住所 can be of no avail. In 貿易（する）s which are known to be very unwholesome, the 給料 of 労働 are always remarkably high. Unwholesomeness is a 種類 of disagreeableness, and its 影響s upon the 給料 of 労働 are to be 階級d under that general 長，率いる.

In all the different 雇用s of 在庫／株, the ordinary 率 of 利益（をあげる） 変化させるs more or いっそう少なく with the certainty or 不確定 of the returns. These are in general いっそう少なく uncertain in the inland than in the foreign 貿易（する）, and in some 支店s of foreign 貿易（する） than in others; in the 貿易（する） to North America, for example, than in that to Jamaica. The ordinary 率 of 利益（をあげる） always rises more or いっそう少なく with the 危険. It does not, however, seem to rise in 割合 to it, or so as to 補償する it 完全に. 破産s are most たびたび（訪れる） in the most 危険な 貿易（する）s. The most 危険な of all 貿易（する）s, that of a smuggler, though when the adventure 後継するs it is likewise the most profitable, is the infallible road to 破産. The presumptuous hope of success seems to 行為／法令／行動する here as upon all other occasions, and to entice so many adventurers into those 危険な 貿易（する）s, that their 競争 減ずるs their 利益（をあげる） below what is 十分な to 補償する the 危険. To 補償する it 完全に, the ありふれた returns ought, over and above the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, not only to （不足などを）補う for all 時折の losses, but to afford a 黒字／過剰 利益（をあげる） to the adventurers of the same nature with the 利益（をあげる） of 保険会社s. But if the ありふれた returns were 十分な for all this, 破産s would not be more たびたび（訪れる） in these than in other 貿易（する）s.

Of the five circumstances, therefore, which 変化させる the 給料 of 労働, two only 影響する／感情 the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株; the agreeableness or disagreeableness of the 商売／仕事, and the 危険 or 安全 with which it is …に出席するd. In point of agreeableness, there is little or no difference in the far greater part of the different 雇用s of 在庫／株; but a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 in those of 労働; and the ordinary 利益（をあげる） of 在庫／株, though it rises with the 危険, does not always seem to rise in 割合 to it. It should follow from all this, that, in the same society or neighbourhood, the 普通の／平均（する） and ordinary 率s of 利益（をあげる） in the different 雇用s of 在庫／株 should be more nearly upon a level than the pecuniary 給料 of the different sorts of 労働. They are so accordingly. The difference between the 収入s of a ありふれた labourer and those of a 井戸／弁護士席 雇うd lawyer or 内科医, is evidently much greater than that between the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s in any two different 支店s of 貿易（する）. The 明らかな difference, besides, in the 利益（をあげる）s of different 貿易（する）s, is 一般に a deception arising from our not always distinguishing what せねばならない be considered as 給料, from what せねばならない be considered as 利益（をあげる）.

Apothecaries' 利益（をあげる） is become a bye-word, denoting something uncommonly extravagant. This 広大な／多数の／重要な 明らかな 利益（をあげる）, however, is frequently no more than the reasonable 給料 of 労働. The 技術 of an apothecary is a much nicer and more delicate 事柄 than that of any artificer whatever; and the 信用 which is reposed in him is of much greater importance. He is the 内科医 of the poor in all 事例／患者s, and of the rich when the 苦しめる or danger is not very 広大な／多数の／重要な. His reward, therefore, せねばならない be suitable to his 技術 and his 信用, and it arises 一般に from the price at which he sells his 麻薬s. But the whole 麻薬s which the best 雇うd apothecary, in a large market town, will sell in a year, may not perhaps cost him above thirty or forty 続けざまに猛撃するs. Though he should sell them, therefore, for three or four hundred, or at a thousand per cent 利益（をあげる）, this may frequently be no more than the reasonable 給料 of his 労働 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金d, in the only way in which he can 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金 them, upon the price of his 麻薬s. The greater part of the 明らかな 利益（をあげる） is real 給料 disguised in the garb of 利益（をあげる）.

In a small seaport town, a little grocer will make forty or fifty per cent upon a 在庫／株 of a 選び出す／独身 hundred 続けざまに猛撃するs, while a かなりの 卸売 merchant in the same place will 不十分な make eight or ten per cent upon a 在庫／株 of ten thousand. The 貿易（する） of the grocer may be necessary for the conveniency of the inhabitants, and the narrowness of the market may not 収容する／認める the 雇用 of a larger 資本／首都 in the 商売／仕事. The man, however, must not only live by his 貿易（する）, but live by it 都合よく to the 資格s which it 要求するs. Besides 所有するing a little 資本／首都, he must be able to read, 令状, and account, and must be a tolerable 裁判官 too of, perhaps, fifty or sixty different sorts of goods, their prices, 質s, and the markets where they are to be had cheapest. He must have all the knowledge, in short, that is necessary for a 広大な／多数の／重要な merchant, which nothing 妨げるs him from becoming but the want of a 十分な 資本／首都. Thirty or forty 続けざまに猛撃するs a year cannot be considered as too 広大な／多数の／重要な a recompense for the 労働 of a person so 遂行するd. Deduct this from the seemingly 広大な／多数の／重要な 利益（をあげる）s of his 資本／首都, and little more will remain, perhaps, than the ordinary 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株. The greater part of the 明らかな 利益（をあげる） is, in this 事例／患者 too, real 給料.

The difference between the 明らかな 利益（をあげる） of the 小売 and that of the 卸売 貿易（する）, is much いっそう少なく in the 資本／首都 than in small towns and country villages. Where ten thousand 続けざまに猛撃するs can be 雇うd in the grocery 貿易（する）, the 給料 of the grocer's 労働 make but a very trifling 新規加入 to the real 利益（をあげる）s of so 広大な／多数の／重要な a 在庫／株. The 明らかな 利益（をあげる）s of the 豊富な retailer, therefore, are there more nearly upon a level with those of the 卸売 merchant. It is upon this account that goods sold by 小売 are 一般に as cheap and frequently much cheaper in the 資本／首都 than in small towns and country villages. Grocery goods, for example, are 一般に much cheaper; bread and butcher's meat frequently as cheap. It costs no more to bring grocery goods to the 広大な／多数の／重要な town than to the country village; but it costs a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 more to bring corn and cattle, as the greater part of them must be brought from a much greater distance. The prime cost of grocery goods, therefore, 存在 the same in both places, they are cheapest where the least 利益（をあげる） is 告発（する），告訴（する）／料金d upon them. The prime cost of bread and butcher's meat is greater in the 広大な／多数の／重要な town than in the country village; and though the 利益（をあげる） is いっそう少なく, therefore, they are not always cheaper there, but often 平等に cheap. In such articles as bread and butcher's meat, the same 原因（となる）, which 減らすs 明らかな 利益（をあげる）, 増加するs prime cost. The extent of the market, by giving 雇用 to greater 在庫／株s, 減らすs 明らかな 利益（をあげる）; but by 要求するing 供給（する）s from a greater distance, it 増加するs prime cost. This diminution of the one and 増加する of the other seem, in most 事例／患者s, nearly to counterbalance one another, which is probably the 推論する／理由 that, though the prices of corn and cattle are 一般的に very different in different parts of the kingdom, those of bread and butcher's meat are 一般に very nearly the same through the greater part of it.

Though the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 both in the 卸売 and 小売 貿易（する） are 一般に いっそう少なく in the 資本／首都 than in small towns and country villages, yet 広大な／多数の／重要な fortunes are frequently acquired from small beginnings in the former, and 不十分な ever in the latter. In small towns and country villages, on account of the narrowness of the market, 貿易（する） cannot always be 延長するd as 在庫／株 延長するs. In such places, therefore, though the 率 of a particular person's 利益（をあげる）s may be very high, the sum or 量 of them can never be very 広大な／多数の／重要な, nor その結果 that of his 年次の accumulation. In 広大な／多数の／重要な towns, on the contrary, 貿易（する） can be 延長するd as 在庫／株 増加するs, and the credit of a frugal and 栄えるing man 増加するs much faster than his 在庫／株. His 貿易（する） is 延長するd in 割合 to the 量 of both, and the sum or 量 of his 利益（をあげる）s is in 割合 to the extent of his 貿易（する）, and his 年次の accumulation in 割合 to the 量 of his 利益（をあげる）s. It seldom happens, however, that 広大な／多数の／重要な fortunes are made even in 広大な／多数の／重要な towns by any one 正規の／正選手, 設立するd, and 井戸／弁護士席-known 支店 of 商売／仕事, but in consequence of a long life of 産業, frugality, and attention. Sudden fortunes, indeed, are いつかs made in such places by what is called the 貿易（する） of 憶測. The 思索的な merchant 演習s no one 正規の／正選手, 設立するd, or 井戸／弁護士席-known 支店 of 商売／仕事. He is a corn merchant this year, and a ワイン merchant the next, and a sugar, タバコ, or tea merchant the year after. He enters into every 貿易（する） when he 予知するs that it is likely to be more than 一般的に profitable, and he やめるs it when he 予知するs that its 利益（をあげる）s are likely to return to the level of other 貿易（する）s. His 利益（をあげる）s and losses, therefore, can 耐える no 正規の／正選手 割合 to those of any one 設立するd and 井戸／弁護士席-known 支店 of 商売／仕事. A bold adventurer may いつかs acquire a かなりの fortune by two or three successful 憶測s; but is just as likely to lose one by two or three 不成功の ones. This 貿易（する） can be carried on nowhere but in 広大な／多数の／重要な towns . It is only in places of the most 広範囲にわたる 商業 and correspondence that the 知能 requisite for it can be had.

The five circumstances above について言及するd, though they occasion かなりの 不平等s in the 給料 of 労働 and 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株, occasion 非，不，無 in the whole of the advantages and disadvantages, real or imaginary, of the different 雇用s of either. The nature of those circumstances is such that they （不足などを）補う for a small pecuniary 伸び（る） in some, and counterbalance a 広大な／多数の／重要な one in others.

In order, however, that this equality may take place in the whole of their advantages or disadvantages, three things are requisite even where there is the most perfect freedom. First, the 雇用s must be 井戸／弁護士席 known and long 設立するd in the neighbourhood; secondly, they must be in their ordinary, or what may be called their natural 明言する／公表する; and, thirdly, they must be the 単独の or 主要な／長／主犯 雇用s of those who 占領する them.

First, this equality can take place only in those 雇用s which are 井戸／弁護士席 known, and have been long 設立するd in the neighbourhood.

Where all other circumstances are equal, 給料 are 一般に higher in new than in old 貿易（する）s. When a projector 試みる／企てるs to 設立する a new 製造（する）, he must at first entice his workmen from other 雇用s by higher 給料 than they can either earn in their own 貿易（する）s, or than the nature of his work would さもなければ 要求する, and a かなりの time must pass away before he can 投機・賭ける to 減ずる them to the ありふれた level. 製造（する）s for which the 需要・要求する arises altogether from fashion and fancy are continually changing, and seldom last long enough to be considered as old 設立するd 製造（する）s. Those, on the contrary, for which the 需要・要求する arises 主として from use or necessity, are いっそう少なく liable to change, and the same form or fabric may continue in 需要・要求する for whole centuries together. The 給料 of 労働, therefore, are likely to be higher in 製造（する）s of the former than in those of the latter 肉親，親類d. Birmingham 取引，協定s 主として in 製造（する）s of the former 肉親，親類d; Sheffield in those of the latter; and the 給料 of 労働 in those two different places are said to be suitable to this difference in the nature of their 製造（する）s.

The 設立 of any new 製造（する）, of any new 支店 of 商業, or of any new practice in 農業, is always a 憶測, from which the projector 約束s himself 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 利益（をあげる）s. These 利益（をあげる）s いつかs are very 広大な／多数の／重要な, and いつかs, more frequently, perhaps, they are やめる さもなければ; but in general they 耐える no 正規の／正選手 割合 to those of other old 貿易（する）s in the neighbourhood. If the 事業／計画（する） 後継するs, they are 一般的に at first very high. When the 貿易（する） or practice becomes 完全に 設立するd and 井戸／弁護士席 known, the 競争 減ずるs them to the level of other 貿易（する）s.

Secondly, this equality in the whole of the advantages and disadvantages of the different 雇用s of 労働 and 在庫／株, can take place only in the ordinary, or what may be called the natural 明言する／公表する of those 雇用s.

The 需要・要求する for almost every different 種類 of 労働 is いつかs greater and いつかs いっそう少なく than usual. In the one 事例／患者 the advantages of the 雇用 rise above, in the other they 落ちる below the ありふれた level. The 需要・要求する for country 労働 is greater at hay-time and 収穫 than during the greater part of the year; and 給料 rise with the 需要・要求する. In time of war, when forty or fifty thousand sailors are 軍隊d from the merchant service into that of the king, the 需要・要求する for sailors to merchant ships やむを得ず rises with their scarcity, and their 給料 upon such occasions 一般的に rise from a guinea and seven-and-twenty shillings, to forty shillings and three 続けざまに猛撃するs a month. In a decaying 製造（する）, on the contrary, many workmen, rather than やめる their old 貿易（する）, are contented with smaller 給料 than would さもなければ be suitable to the nature of their 雇用.

The 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 変化させる with the price of the 商品／必需品s in which it is 雇うd. As the price of any 商品／必需品 rises above the ordinary or 普通の／平均（する） 率, the 利益（をあげる）s of at least some part of the 在庫／株 that is 雇うd in bringing it to market, rise above their proper level, and as it 落ちるs they 沈む below it. All 商品／必需品s are more or いっそう少なく liable to variations of price, but some are much more so than others. In all 商品／必需品s which are produced by human 産業, the 量 of 産業 毎年 雇うd is やむを得ず 規制するd by the 年次の 需要・要求する, in such a manner that the 普通の／平均（する） 年次の produce may, as nearly as possible, be equal to the 普通の／平均（する） 年次の 消費. In some 雇用s, it has already been 観察するd, the same 量 of 産業 will always produce the same, or very nearly the same 量 of 商品／必需品s. In the linen or woollen 製造（する）s, for example, the same number of 手渡すs will 毎年 work up very nearly the same 量 of linen and woollen cloth. The variations in the market price of such 商品／必需品s, therefore, can arise only from some 偶発の variation in the 需要・要求する. A public 嘆く／悼むing raises the price of 黒人／ボイコット cloth. But as the 需要・要求する for most sorts of plain linen and woollen cloth is pretty uniform, so is likewise the price. But there are other 雇用s in which the same 量 of 産業 will not always produce the same 量 of 商品／必需品s. The same 量 of 産業, for example, will, in different years, produce very different 量s of corn, ワイン, hops, sugar, タバコ, etc. The price of such 商品／必需品s, therefore, 変化させるs not only with the variations of 需要・要求する, but with the much greater and more たびたび（訪れる） variations of 量, and is その結果 極端に fluctuating. But the 利益（をあげる） of some of the 売買業者s must やむを得ず fluctuate with the price of the 商品／必需品s. The 操作／手術s of the 思索的な merchant are principally 雇うd about such 商品／必需品s. He endeavours to buy them up when he 予知するs that their price is likely to rise, and to sell them when it is likely to 落ちる.

Thirdly, this equality in the whole of the advantages and disadvantages of the different 雇用s of 労働 and 在庫／株 can take only in such as are the 単独の or 主要な／長／主犯 雇用s of those who 占領する them.

When a person derives his subsistence from one 雇用, which does not 占領する the greater part of his time, in the intervals of his leisure he is often willing to work as another for いっそう少なく 給料 than would さもなければ 控訴 the nature of the 雇用.

There still subsists in many parts of Scotland a 始める，決める of people called Cotters or Cottagers, though they were more たびたび（訪れる） some years ago than they are now. They are a sort of outservants of the landlords and 農業者s. The usual reward which they receive from their masters is a house, a small garden for マリファナ-herbs, as much grass as will 料金d a cow, and, perhaps, an acre or two of bad arable land. When their master has occasion for their 労働, he gives them, besides, two つつく／ペックs of oatmeal a week, 価値（がある） about sixteenpence 英貨の／純銀の. During a 広大な／多数の／重要な part of the year he has little or no occasion for their 労働, and the cultivation of their own little 所有／入手 is not 十分な to 占領する the time which is left at their own 処分. When such occupiers were more 非常に／多数の than they are at 現在の, they are said to have been willing to give their spare time for a very small recompense to anybody, and to have wrought for いっそう少なく 給料 than other labourers. In 古代の times they seem to have been ありふれた all over Europe. In countries ill cultivated and worse 住むd, the greater part of landlords and 農業者s could not さもなければ 供給する themselves with the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の number of 手渡すs which country 労働 要求するs at 確かな season. The daily or 週刊誌 recompense which such labourers occasionally received from their masters was evidently not the whole price of their 労働. Their small tenement made a かなりの part of it. This daily or 週刊誌 recompense, however, seems to have been considered as the whole of it, by many writers who have collected the prices of 労働 and 準備／条項s in 古代の times, and who have taken 楽しみs in 代表するing both as wonderfully low.

The produce of such 労働 comes frequently cheaper to market than would さもなければ suitable to its nature. Stockings in many parts of Scotland are knit much cheaper than they can anywhere be wrought upon the ぼんやり現れる. They are the work of servants and labourers, who derive the 主要な／長／主犯 part of their subsistence from some other 雇用. More than a thousand pair of Shetland stockings are 毎年 輸入するd into Leith, of which the price is from fivepence to sevenpence a pair. At Lerwick, the small 資本／首都 of the Shetland Islands, tenpence a day, I have been 保証するd, is a ありふれた price of ありふれた 労働. In the same islands they knit worsted stockings to the value of a guinea a pair and 上向きs.

The spinning of linen yarn is carried on in Scotland nearly in the same way as the knitting of stockings by servants, who are 主として 雇うd for other 目的s. They earn but a very scanty subsistence, who endeavour to get their whole 暮らし by either of those 貿易（する）s. In most parts of Scotland she is a good spinner who can earn twentypence a week.

In opulent countries the market is 一般に so 広範囲にわたる that any one 貿易（する） is 十分な to 雇う the whole 労働 and 在庫／株 of those who 占領する it. Instances of people's living by one 雇用, and at the same time deriving some little advantage from another, occur 主として in poor countries. The に引き続いて instance, however, of something of the same 肉親，親類d is to be 設立する in the 資本／首都 of a very rich one. There is no city in Europe, I believe, in which house-rent is dearer than in London, and yet I know no 資本／首都 in which a furnished apartment can be 雇うd as cheap. 宿泊するing is not only much cheaper in London than in Paris; it is much cheaper than in Edinburgh of the same degree of goodness; and what may seem 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の, the dearness of house-rent is the 原因（となる） of the cheapness of 宿泊するing. The dearness of house-rent in London arises not only from those 原因（となる）s which （判決などを）下す it dear in all 広大な／多数の／重要な 資本／首都s, the dearness of 労働, the dearness of all the 構成要素s of building, which must 一般に be brought from a 広大な／多数の／重要な distance, and above all the dearness of ground-rent, every landlord 事実上の／代理 the part the part of a monopolist, and frequently exacting a higher rent for a 選び出す／独身 acre of bad land in a town than can be had for a hundred of the best in the country; but it arises in part from the peculiar manners and customs of the people, which 強いる every master of a family to 雇う a whole house from 最高の，を越す to 底（に届く）. A dwelling-house in England means everything that is 含む／封じ込めるd under the same roof. In フラン, Scotland, and many other parts of Europe, it frequently means no more than a 選び出す／独身 story. A tradesman in London is 強いるd to 雇う a whole house in that part of the town where his 顧客s live. His shop is upon the ground-床に打ち倒す, and he and his family sleep in the garret; and he endeavours to 支払う／賃金 a part of his house-rent by letting the two middle stories to lodgers. He 推定する／予想するs to 持続する his family by his 貿易（する）, and not by his lodgers. 反して, at Paris and Edinburgh, the people who let lodgings have commo nly no other means of subsistence and the price of the 宿泊するing must 支払う／賃金, not only the rent of the house, but the whole expense of the family.

Part 2: 不平等s by the 政策 of Europe

It does this 主として in the three に引き続いて ways. First, by 抑制するing the 競争 in some 雇用s to a smaller number than would さもなければ be 性質の／したい気がして to enter into them; secondly, by 増加するing it in others beyond what it 自然に would be; and, thirdly, by 妨害するing the 解放する／自由な 循環／発行部数 of 労働 and 在庫／株, both from 雇用 to 雇用 and from place to place.

First, the 政策 of Europe occasions a very important 不平等 in the whole of the advantages and disadvantages of the different 雇用s of 労働 and 在庫／株, by 抑制するing the 競争 in some 雇用s to a smaller number than might さもなければ be 性質の／したい気がして to enter into them.

The 排除的 特権s of 会社／団体s are the 主要な／長／主犯 means it makes use of for this 目的.

The 排除的 特権 of an 会社にする／組み込むd 貿易（する） やむを得ず 抑制するs the 競争, in the town where it is 設立するd, to those who are 解放する／自由な of the 貿易（する）. To have served an 見習いの身分制度 in the town, under a master 適切に qualified, is 一般的に the necessary requisite for 得るing this freedom. The bye 法律s of the 会社／団体 規制する いつかs the number of 見習い工s which any master is 許すd to have, and almost always the number of years which each 見習い工 is 強いるd to serve. The 意向 of both 規則s is to 抑制する the 競争 to a much smaller number than might さもなければ be 性質の／したい気がして to enter into the 貿易（する）. The 制限 of the number of 見習い工s 抑制するs it 直接／まっすぐに. A long 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of 見習いの身分制度 抑制するs it more 間接に, but as effectually, by 増加するing the expense of education.

In Sheffield no master cutler can have more than one 見習い工 at a time, by a bye 法律 of the 会社／団体. In Norfolk and Norwich no master weaver can have more than two 見習い工s, under 苦痛 of 没収されるing five 続けざまに猛撃するs a month to the king. No master hatter can have more than two 見習い工s anywhere in England, or in the English 農園s, under 苦痛 of 没収されるing five 続けざまに猛撃するs a month, half to the king and half to him who shall 告訴する in any 法廷，裁判所 of 記録，記録的な／記録する. Both these 規則s, though they have been 確認するd by a public 法律 of the kingdom, are evidently dictated by the same 会社／団体 spirit which 制定するd the bye-法律 of Sheffield. The silk weavers in London had 不十分な been 会社にする／組み込むd a year when they 制定するd a bye-法律 抑制するing any master from having more than two 見習い工s at a time. It 要求するd a particular 行為／法令／行動する of 議会 to 無効にする this bye 法律.

Seven years seem anciently to have been, all over Europe, the usual 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 設立するd for the duration of 見習いの身分制度s in the greater part of 会社にする／組み込むd 貿易（する）s. All such 合併／会社設立s were anciently called universities, which indeed is the proper Latin 指名する for any 合併／会社設立 whatever. The university of smiths, the university of tailors, etc., are 表現s which we 一般的に 会合，会う with in the old 借り切る／憲章s of 古代の towns. When those particular 合併／会社設立s which are now peculiarly called universities were first 設立するd, the 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of years which it was necessary to 熟考する／考慮する, ーするために 得る the degree of master of arts, appears evidently to have been copied from the 条件 of 見習いの身分制度 in ありふれた 貿易（する）s, of which the 合併／会社設立s were much more 古代の. As to have wrought seven years under a master 適切に qualified was necessary ーするために する権利を与える any person to become a master, and to have himself 見習い工d in a ありふれた 貿易（する）; so to have 熟考する／考慮するd seven years under a master 適切に qualified was necessary to する権利を与える him to become a master, teacher, or doctor (words anciently synonymous) in the 自由主義の arts, and to have scholars or 見習い工s (words likewise 初めは synonymous) to 熟考する／考慮する under him.

By the 5th of Elizabeth, 一般的に called the 法令 of 見習いの身分制度, it was 制定するd, that no person should for the 未来 演習 any 貿易（する）, （手先の）技術, or mystery at that time 演習d in England, unless he had 以前 served to it an 見習いの身分制度 of seven years at least; and what before had been the bye 法律 of many particular 会社／団体s became in England the general and public 法律 of all 貿易（する）s carried on in market towns. For though the words of the 法令 are very general, and seem plainly to 含む the whole kingdom, by 解釈／通訳 its 操作／手術 has been 限られた／立憲的な to market towns, it having been held that in country villages a person may 演習 several different 貿易（する）s, though he has not served a seven years' 見習いの身分制度 to each, they 存在 necessary for the conveniency of the inhabitants, and the number of people frequently not 存在 十分な to 供給（する） each with a particular 始める，決める of 手渡すs.

By a strict 解釈／通訳 of the words, too, the 操作／手術 of this 法令 has been 限られた／立憲的な to those 貿易（する）s which were 設立するd in England before the 5th of Elizabeth, and has never been 延長するd to such as have been introduced since that time. This 制限 has given occasion to several distinctions which, considered as 支配するs of police, appear as foolish as can 井戸／弁護士席 be imagined. It has been adjudged, for example, that a coachmaker can neither himself make nor 雇う journeymen to make his coach-wheels, but must buy them of a master wheel-wright; this latter 貿易（する） having been 演習d in England before the 5th of Elizabeth. But a wheelwright, though he has never served an 見習いの身分制度 to a coachmaker, may either himself make or 雇う journeyman to make coaches; the 貿易（する） of a coachmaker not 存在 within the 法令, because not 演習d in England at the time when it was made. The 製造（する）s of Manchester, Birmingham, and Wolverhampton, are many of them, upon this account, not within the 法令, not having been 演習d in England before the 5th of Elizabeth.

In フラン, the duration of 見習いの身分制度s is different in different towns and in different 貿易（する）s. In Paris, five years is the 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 要求するd in a 広大な／多数の／重要な number; but before any person can be qualified to 演習 the 貿易（する） as a master, he must, in many of them, serve five years more as a journeyman. During this latter 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 he is called the companion of his master, and the 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 itself is called his companionship.

In Scotland there is no general 法律 which 規制するs universally the duration of 見習いの身分制度s. The 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 is different in different 会社／団体s. Where it is long, a part of it may 一般に be redeemed by 支払う／賃金ing a small 罰金. In most towns, too, a very small 罰金 is 十分な to 購入（する） the freedom of any 会社／団体. The weavers of linen and hempen cloth, the 主要な／長／主犯 製造（する）s of the country, 同様に as all other artificers subservient to them, wheel-製造者s, reel-製造者s, etc., may 演習 their 貿易（する）s in any town 法人組織の／企業の without 支払う／賃金ing any 罰金. In all towns 法人組織の／企業の all persons are 解放する／自由な to sell butcher's meat upon any lawful day of the week. Three years in Scotland is a ありふれた 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of 見習いの身分制度, even in some very nice 貿易（する）s; and in general I know of no country in Europe in which 会社／団体 法律s are so little oppressive.

The 所有物／資産／財産 which every man has in his own 労働, as it is the 初めの 創立／基礎 of all other 所有物／資産／財産, so it is the most sacred and inviolable. The patrimony of a poor man lies in the strength and dexterity of his 手渡すs; and to 妨げる him from 雇うing this strength and dexterity of his 手渡すs; and to 妨げる him from 雇うing this strength and dexterity in what manner he thinks proper without 傷害 to his 隣人 is a plain 違反 of this most sacred 所有物／資産／財産. It is a manifest encroachment upon the just liberty both of the workman and of those who might be 性質の／したい気がして to 雇う him. As it 妨げるs the one from working at what he thinks proper, so it 妨げるs the others from 雇うing whom they think proper. To 裁判官 whether he is fit to be 雇うd may surely be 信用d to the discretion of the 雇用者s whose 利益／興味 it so much 関心s. The 影響する／感情d 苦悩 of the 法律-giver lest they should 雇う an 妥当でない person is evidently as impertinent as it is oppressive.

The 会・原則 of long 見習いの身分制度s can give no 安全 that insufficient workmanship shall not frequently be exposed to public sale. When this is done it is 一般に the 影響 of 詐欺, and not of 無（不）能; and the longest 見習いの身分制度 can give no 安全 against 詐欺. やめる different 規則s are necessary to 妨げる this 乱用. The 英貨の／純銀の 示す upon plate, and the stamps upon linen and woollen cloth, give the purchaser much greater 安全 than any 法令 of 見習いの身分制度. He 一般に looks at these, but never thinks it 価値（がある） while to 問い合わせ whether the workman had served a seven years' 見習いの身分制度.

The 会・原則 of long 見習いの身分制度s has no 傾向 to form a young people to 産業. A journeyman who 作品 by the piece is likely to be industrious, because he derives a 利益 from every exertion of his 産業. An 見習い工 is likely to be idle, and almost always is so, because he has no 即座の 利益／興味 to be さもなければ. In the inferior 雇用s, the 甘いs of 労働 consist altogether in the recompense of 労働. They who are soonest in a 条件 to enjoy the 甘いs of it are likely soonest to conceive a relish for it, and to acquire the 早期に habit of 産業. A young man 自然に conceives an aversion to 労働 when for a long time he receives no 利益 from it. The boys who are put out 見習い工s from public charities are 一般に bound for more than the usual number of years, and they 一般に turn out very idle and worthless.

見習いの身分制度s were altogether unknown to the 古代のs. The 相互の 義務s of master and 見習い工 make a かなりの article in every modern code. The Roman 法律 is perfectly silent with regard to them. I know no Greek or Latin word (I might 投機・賭ける, I believe, to 主張する that there is 非，不，無) which 表明するs the idea we now 別館 to the word 見習い工, a servant bound to work at a particular 貿易（する） for the 利益 of a master, during a 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 of years, upon 条件 that the master shall teach him that 貿易（する）.

Long 見習いの身分制度s are altogether unnecessary. The arts, which are much superior to ありふれた 貿易（する）s, such as those of making clocks and watches, 含む／封じ込める no such mystery as to 要求する a long course of 指示／教授／教育. The first 発明 of such beautiful machines, indeed, and even that of some of the 器具s 雇うd in making them, must, no 疑問, have been the work of 深い thought and long time, and may 正確に，正当に be considered as の中で the happiest 成果／努力s of human ingenuity. But when both have been 公正に／かなり invented and are 井戸／弁護士席 understood, to explain to any young man, in the completest manner, how to 適用する the 器具s and how to 建設する the machines, cannot 井戸／弁護士席 要求する more than the lessons of a few weeks: perhaps those of a few days might be 十分な. In the ありふれた mechanic 貿易（する）s, those of a few days might certainly be 十分な. The dexterity of 手渡す, indeed, even in ありふれた 貿易（する）s, cannot be acquired without much practice and experience. But a young man would practice with much more diligence and attention, if from the beginning he wrought as a journeyman, 存在 paid in 割合 to the little work which he could 遂行する／発効させる, and 支払う／賃金ing in his turn for the 構成要素s which he might いつかs spoil through awkwardness and inexperience. His education would 一般に in this way be more effectual, and always いっそう少なく tedious and expensive. The master, indeed, would be a loser. He would lose all the 給料 of the 見習い工, which he now saves, for seven years together. In the end, perhaps, the 見習い工 himself would be a loser. In a 貿易（する） so easily learnt he would have more competitors, and his 給料, when he （機の）カム to be a 完全にする workman, would be much いっそう少なく than at 現在の. The same 増加する of 競争 would 減ずる the 利益（をあげる）s of the masters 同様に as the 給料 of the workmen. The 貿易（する）s, the （手先の）技術s, the mysteries, would all be losers. But the public would be a gainer, the work of all artificers coming in this way much cheaper to market.

It is to 妨げる this 削減 of price, and その結果 of 給料 and 利益（をあげる）, by 抑制するing that 解放する／自由な 競争 which would most certainly occasion it, that all 会社／団体s, and the greater part of 会社／団体 法律s, have been 設立するd. ーするために 築く a 会社／団体, no other 当局 in 古代の times was requisite in many parts of Europe, but that of the town 法人組織の／企業の in which it was 設立するd. In England, indeed, a 借り切る／憲章 from the king was likewise necessary. But this prerogative of the 栄冠を与える seems to have been reserved rather for だまし取るing money from the 支配する than for the defence of the ありふれた liberty against such oppressive monopolies. Upon 支払う／賃金ing a 罰金 to the king, the 借り切る／憲章 seems 一般に to have been readily 認めるd; and when any particular class of artificers or 仲買人s thought proper to 行為／法令／行動する as a 会社／団体 without a 借り切る／憲章, such adulterine guilds, as they were called, were not always disfranchised upon that account, but 強いるd to 罰金 毎年 to the king for 許可 to 演習 their usurped 特権s. The 即座の 査察 of all 会社／団体s, and of the bye-法律s which they might think proper to 制定する for their own 政府, belonged to the town 法人組織の／企業の in which they were 設立するd; and whatever discipline was 演習d over them proceeded 一般的に, not from the king, but from the greater 合併／会社設立 of which those subordinate ones were only parts or members.

The 政府 of towns 法人組織の／企業の was altogether in the 手渡すs of 仲買人s and artificers, and it was the manifest 利益／興味 of every particular class of them to 妨げる the market from 存在 overstocked, as they 一般的に 表明する it, with their own particular 種類 of 産業, which is in reality to keep it always understocked. Each class was eager to 設立する 規則s proper for this 目的, and, 供給するd it was 許すd to do so, was willing to 同意 that every other class should do the same. In consequence of such 規則s, indeed, each class was 強いるd to buy the goods they had occasion for from every other within the town, somewhat dearer than they さもなければ might have done. But in recompense, they were enabled to sell their own just as much dearer; so that so far it was as 幅の広い as long, as they say; and in the 取引 of the different classes within the town with one another, 非，不，無 of them were losers by these 規則s. But in their 取引 with the country they were all 広大な／多数の／重要な gainers; and in these latter 取引 consists the whole 貿易（する） which supports and 濃厚にするs every town.

Every town draws its whole subsistence, and all the 構成要素s of its 産業, from the country. It 支払う／賃金s for these 主として in two ways: first, by sending 支援する to the country a part of those 構成要素s wrought up and 製造（する）d; in which 事例／患者 their price is augmented by the 給料 of the workmen, and the 利益（をあげる）s of their masters or 即座の 雇用者s; secondly, by sending to it a part both of the rude and 製造（する）d produce, either of other countries, or of distant parts of the same country, 輸入するd into the town; in which 事例／患者, too, the 初めの price of those goods is augmented by the 給料 of the 運送／保菌者s or sailors, and by the 利益（をあげる）s of the merchants who 雇う them. In what is 伸び（る）d upon the first of those two 支店s of 商業 consists the advantage which the town makes by its 製造（する）s; in what is 伸び（る）d upon the second, the advantage of its inland and foreign 貿易（する）. The 給料 of the workmen, and the 利益（をあげる）s of their different 雇用者s, （不足などを）補う the whole of what is 伸び（る）d upon both. Whatever 規則s, therefore, tend to 増加する those 給料 and 利益（をあげる）s beyond what they さもなければ would be, tend to enable the town to 購入（する）, with a smaller 量 of its 労働, the produce of a greater 量 of the 労働 of the country. They give the 仲買人s and artificers in the town an advantage over the landlords, 農業者s, and labourers in the country, and break 負かす／撃墜する that natural equality which would さもなければ take place in the 商業 which is carried on between them. The whole 年次の produce of the 労働 of the society is 毎年 divided between those two different 始める，決めるs of people. By means of those 規則s a greater 株 of it is given to the inhabitants of the town than would さもなければ 落ちる to them; and a いっそう少なく to those of the country.

The price which the town really 支払う／賃金s for the 準備／条項s and 構成要素s 毎年 輸入するd into it is the 量 of 製造（する）s and other goods 毎年 輸出（する）d from it. The dearer the latter are sold, the cheaper the former are bought. The 産業 of the town becomes more, and that of the country いっそう少なく advantageous.

That the 産業 which is carried on in towns is, everywhere in Europe, more advantageous than that which is carried on in the country, without entering into any very nice computations, we may 満足させる ourselves by one very simple and obvious 観察. In every country of Europe we find, at least, a hundred people who have acquired 広大な／多数の／重要な fortunes from small beginnings by 貿易（する） and 製造（する）s, the 産業 which 適切に belongs to towns, for one who has done so by that which 適切に belongs to the country, the raising of rude produce by the 改良 and cultivation of land. 産業, therefore, must be better rewarded, the 給料 of 労働 and the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 must evidently be greater in the one 状況／情勢 than in the other. But 在庫／株 and 労働 自然に 捜し出す the most advantageous 雇用. They 自然に, therefore, 訴える手段／行楽地 as much as they can to the town, and 砂漠 the country.

The inhabitants of a town, 存在 collected into one place, can easily 連合させる together. The most insignificant 貿易（する）s carried on in towns have accordingly, in some place or other, been 会社にする／組み込むd, and even where they have never been 会社にする／組み込むd, yet the 会社／団体 spirit, the jealousy of strangers, the aversion to take 見習い工s, or to communicate the secret of their 貿易（する）, 一般に 勝つ／広く一帯に広がる in them, and often teach them, by voluntary 協会s and 協定s, to 妨げる that 解放する／自由な 競争 which they cannot 禁じる by bye-法律s. The 貿易（する）s which 雇う but a small number of 手渡すs run most easily into such combinations. Half a dozen wool-combers, perhaps, are necessary to keep a thousand spinners and weavers at work. By 連合させるing not to take 見習い工s they can not only engross the 雇用, but 減ずる the whole 製造（する） into a sort of slavery to themselves, and raise the price of their 労働 much above what is 予定 to the nature of their work.

The inhabitants of the country, 分散させるd in distant places, cannot easily 連合させる together. They have not only never been 会社にする／組み込むd, but the 会社／団体 spirit never has 勝つ／広く一帯に広がるd の中で them. No 見習いの身分制度 has ever been thought necessary to qualify for husbandry, the 広大な／多数の／重要な 貿易（する） of the country. After what are called the 罰金 arts, and the 自由主義の professions, however, there is perhaps no 貿易（する） which 要求するs so 広大な／多数の／重要な a variety of knowledge and experience. The innumerable 容積／容量s which have been written upon it in all languages may 満足させる us that, の中で the wisest and most learned nations, it has never been regarded as a 事柄 very easily understood. And from all those 容積／容量s we shall in vain 試みる／企てる to collect that knowledge of its さまざまな and 複雑にするd 操作／手術s, which is 一般的に 所有するd even by the ありふれた 農業者; how contemptuously soever the very contemptible authors of some of them may いつかs 影響する／感情 to speak of him. There is 不十分な any ありふれた mechanic 貿易（する）, on the contrary, of which all the 操作／手術s may not be as 完全に and distinctly explained in a 小冊子 of a very few pages, as it is possible for words illustrated by 人物／姿／数字s to explain them. In the history of the arts, now publishing by the French 学院 of Sciences, several of them are 現実に explained in this manner. The direction of 操作／手術s, besides, which must be 変化させるd with every change of the 天候, 同様に as with many other 事故s, 要求するs much more judgment and discretion than that of those which are always the same or very nearly the same.

Not only the art of the 農業者, the general direction of the 操作／手術s of husbandry, but many inferior 支店s of country 労働 要求する much more 肌 and experience than the greater part of mechanic 貿易（する）s. The man who 作品 upon 厚かましさ／高級将校連 and アイロンをかける, 作品 with 器具s and upon 構成要素s of which the temper is always the same, or very nearly the same. But the man who ploughs the ground with a team of horses or oxen, 作品 with 器具s of which the health, strength, and temper, are very different upon different occasions. The 条件 of the 構成要素s which he 作品 upon, too, is as variable as that of the 器具s which he 作品 with, and both 要求する to be managed with much judgment and discretion. The ありふれた ploughman, though 一般に regarded as the pattern of stupidity and ignorance, is seldom 欠陥のある in this judgment and discretion. He is いっそう少なく accustomed, indeed, to social intercourse than the mechanic who lives in a town. His 発言する／表明する and language are more uncouth and more difficult to be understood by those who are not used to them. His understanding, however, 存在 accustomed to consider a greater variety of 反対するs, is 一般に much superior to that of the other, whose whole attention from morning till night is 一般的に 占領するd in 成し遂げるing one or two very simple 操作／手術s. How much the lower 階級s of people in the country are really superior to those of the town is 井戸／弁護士席 known to every man whom either 商売／仕事 or curiosity has led to converse much with both. In 中国 and Indostan accordingly both the 階級 and the 給料 of country labourers are said to be superior to those of the greater part of artificers and 製造業者s. They would probably be so everywhere, if 会社／団体 法律s and the 会社／団体 spirit did not 妨げる it.

The 優越 which the 産業 of the towns has everywhere in Europe over that of the country is not altogether 借りがあるing to 会社／団体s and 会社／団体 法律s. It is supported by many other 規則s. The high 義務s upon foreign 製造（する）s and upon all goods 輸入するd by 外国人 merchants, all tend to the same 目的. 会社／団体 法律s enable the inhabitants of towns to raise their prices, without 恐れるing to be undersold by the 解放する／自由な 競争 of their own countrymen. Those other 規則s 安全な・保証する them 平等に against that of foreigners. The enhancement of price occasioned by both is everywhere finally paid by the landlords, 農業者s, and labourers of the country, who have seldom …に反対するd the 設立 of such monopolies. They have 一般的に neither inclination nor fitness to enter into combinations; and the clamour and sophistry of merchants and 製造業者s easily 説得する them that the 私的な 利益／興味 of a part, and of a subordinate part of the society, is the general 利益／興味 of the whole.

In 広大な／多数の／重要な Britain the 優越 of the 産業 of the towns over that of the country seems to have been greater 以前は than in the 現在の times. The 給料 of country 労働 approach nearer to those of 製造業の 労働, and the 利益（をあげる）s of 在庫／株 雇うd in 農業 to those of 貿易（する）ing and 製造業の 在庫／株, than they are said to have done in the last century, or in the beginning of the 現在の. This change may be regarded as the necessary, though very late consequence of the 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 激励 given to the 産業 of the towns. The 在庫／株 蓄積するd in them comes in time to be so 広大な／多数の／重要な that it can no longer be 雇うd with the 古代の 利益（をあげる） in that 種類 of 産業 which is peculiar to them. That 産業 has its 限界s like every other; and the 増加する of 在庫／株, by 増加するing the 競争, やむを得ず 減ずるs the 利益（をあげる）. The lowering of 利益（をあげる） in the town 軍隊s out 在庫／株 to the country, where, by creating a new 需要・要求する for country 労働, it やむを得ず raises its 給料. It then spreads itself, if I may say so, over the 直面する of the land, and by 存在 雇うd in 農業 is in part 回復するd to the country, at the expense of which, in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段, it had 初めは been 蓄積するd in the town. That everywhere in Europe the greatest 改良s of the country have been 借りがあるing to such overflowings of the 在庫／株 初めは 蓄積するd in the towns, I shall endeavour to show hereafter; and at the same time to 論証する that, though some countries have by this course 達成するd to a かなりの degree of opulence, it is in itself やむを得ず slow, uncertain, liable to be 乱すd and interrupted by innumerable 事故s, and in every 尊敬（する）・点 contrary to the order of nature and of 推論する／理由. The 利益／興味s, prejudices, 法律s and customs, which have given occasion to it, I shall endeavour to explain as fully and distinctly as I can in the third and fourth 調書をとる／予約するs of this 調査.

People of the same 貿易（する） seldom 会合，会う together, even for merriment and 転換, but the conversation ends in a 共謀 against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices. It is impossible indeed to 妨げる such 会合s, by any 法律 which either could be 遂行する／発効させるd, or would be 一貫した with liberty and 司法（官）. But though the 法律 cannot 妨げる people of the same 貿易（する） from いつかs 組み立てる／集結するing together, it せねばならない do nothing to 容易にする such 議会s, much いっそう少なく to （判決などを）下す them necessary.

A 規則 which 強いるs all those of the same 貿易（する） in a particular town to enter their 指名するs and places of abode in a public 登録（する）, 容易にするs such 議会s. It connects individuals who might never さもなければ be known to one another, and gives every man of the 貿易（する） a direction where to find every other man of it.

A 規則 which enables those of the same 貿易（する） to 税金 themselves ーするために 供給する for their poor, their sick, their 未亡人s and 孤児s, by giving them a ありふれた 利益／興味 to manage, （判決などを）下すs such 議会s necessary.

An 合併／会社設立 not only （判決などを）下すs them necessary, but makes the 行為／法令／行動する of the 大多数 binding upon the whole. In a 自由貿易 an effectual combination cannot be 設立するd but by the 全員一致の 同意 of every 選び出す／独身 仲買人, and it cannot last longer than every 選び出す／独身 仲買人 continues of the same mind. The 大多数 of a 会社／団体 can 制定する a bye-法律 with proper 刑罰，罰則s, which will 限界 the 競争 more effectually and more durably than any voluntary combination whatever.

The pretence that 会社／団体s are necessary for the better 政府 of the 貿易（する） is without any 創立／基礎. The real and effectual discipline which is 演習d over a workman is not that of his 会社／団体, but that of his 顧客s. It is the 恐れる of losing their 雇用 which 抑制するs his 詐欺s and 訂正するs his 怠慢，過失. An 排除的 会社／団体 やむを得ず 弱めるs the 軍隊 of this discipline. A particular 始める，決める of workmen must then be 雇うd, let them behave 井戸／弁護士席 or ill. It is upon this account that in many large 会社にする／組み込むd towns no tolerable workmen are to be 設立する, even in some of the most necessary 貿易（する）s. If you would have your work tolerably 遂行する／発効させるd, it must be done in the 郊外s, where the workmen, having no 排除的 特権, have nothing but their character to depend upon, and you must then 密輸する it into the town 同様に as you can.

It is in this manner that the 政策 of Europe, by 抑制するing the 競争 in some 雇用s to a smaller number than would さもなければ be 性質の／したい気がして to enter into them, occasions a very important 不平等 in the whole of the advantages and disadvantages of the different 雇用s of 労働 and 在庫／株.

Secondly, the 政策 of Europe, by 増加するing the 競争 in some 雇用s beyond what it 自然に would be, occasions another 不平等 of an opposite 肉親，親類d in the whole of the advantages and disadvantages of the different 雇用s of 労働 and 在庫／株.

It has been considered as of so much importance that a proper number of young people should be educated for 確かな professions, that いつかs the public and いつかs the piety of 私的な 創立者s have 設立するd many 年金s, scholarships, 展示s, bursaries, etc., for this 目的, which draw many more people into those 貿易（する）s than could さもなければ pretend to follow them. In all Christian countries, I believe, the education of the greater part of churchmen is paid for in this manner. Very few of them are educated altogether at their own expense. The long, tedious, and expensive education, therefore, of those who are, will not always procure them a suitable reward, the church 存在 （人が）群がるd with people who, ーするために get 雇用, are willing to 受託する of a much smaller recompense than what such an education would さもなければ have する権利を与えるd them to; and in this manner the 競争 of the poor takes away the reward of the rich. It would be indecent, no 疑問, to compare either a curate or a chaplain with a journeyman in any ありふれた 貿易（する）. The 支払う／賃金 of a curate or chaplain, however, may very 適切に be considered as of the same nature with the 給料 of a journeyman. They are, all three, paid for their work によれば the 契約 which they may happen to make with their 各々の superiors. Till after the middle of the fourteenth century, five merks, 含む／封じ込めるing about as much silver as ten 続けざまに猛撃するs of our 現在の money, was in England the usual 支払う／賃金 of a curate or a stipendiary parish priest, as we find it 規制するd by the 法令s of several different 国家の 会議s. At the same period fourpence a day, 含む／封じ込めるing the same 量 of silver as a shilling of our 現在の money, was 宣言するd to be the 支払う／賃金 of a master mason, and threepence a day, equal to ninepence of our 現在の money, that of a journeyman mason. The 給料 of both these labourers, therefore, supposing them to have been 絶えず 雇うd, were much superior to those of the curate. The 給料 of the master mason, supposing him to have been without 雇用 one third of the year, would have fully equalled them. By the 12th of Queen Anne, c. 12, it is 宣言するd, "That 反して for want of 十分な 維持／整備 and 激励 to curates, the cures have in several places been meanly 供給（する）d, the bishop is, therefore, 権力を与えるd to 任命する by 令状ing under his 禁止（する）d and 調印（する） a 十分な 確かな stipend or allowance, not 越えるing fifty and not いっそう少なく than twenty 続けざまに猛撃するs a year." Forty 続けざまに猛撃するs a year is reckoned at 現在の very good 支払う／賃金 for a curate, and notwithstanding this 行為／法令／行動する of 議会 there are many curacies under twenty 続けざまに猛撃するs a year. There are journeymen shoemakers in London who earn forty 続けざまに猛撃するs a year, and there is 不十分な an industrious workman of any 肉親，親類d in that metropolis who does not earn more than twenty. This last sum indeed does not 越える what is frequently earned by ありふれた labourers in many country parishes. Whenever the 法律 has 試みる／企てるd to 規制する the 給料 of workmen, it has always been rather to lower them than to raise them. But the 法律 has upon many occasions 試みる／企てるd to raise the 給料 of curates, and for the dignity of the church, to 強いる the rectors of parishes to give them more than the wretched 維持／整備 which they themselves might be willing to 受託する of. And in both 事例／患者s the 法律 seems to have been 平等に ineffectual, and has never either been able to raise the 給料 of curates, or to 沈む those of labourers to the degree that was ーするつもりであるd; because it has never been able to 妨げる either the one from 存在 willing to 受託する of いっそう少なく than the 合法的な allowance, on account of the indigence of their 状況／情勢 and the multitude of their competitors; or the other from receiving more, on account of the contrary 競争 of those who 推定する／予想するd to derive either 利益（をあげる） or 楽しみ from 雇うing them.

The 広大な／多数の／重要な benefices and other ecclesiastical dignities support the honour of the church, notwithstanding the mean circumstance of some of its inferior members. The 尊敬（する）・点 paid to the profession, too, makes some 補償（金） even to them for the meanness of their pecuniary recompense. In England, and in all Roman カトリック教徒 countries, the 宝くじ of the church is in reality much more advantageous than is necessary. The example of the churches of Scotland, of Geneva, and of several other Protestant churches, may 満足させる us that in so creditable a profession, in which education is so easily procured, the hopes of much more 穏健な benefices will draw a 十分な number of learned, decent, and respectable men into 宗教上の orders.

In professions in which there are no benefices, such as 法律 and physic, if an equal 割合 of people were educated at the public expense, the 競争 would soon be so 広大な／多数の／重要な as to 沈む very much their pecuniary reward. It might then not be 価値（がある） any man's while to educate his son to either of those professions at his own expense. They would be 完全に abandoned to such as had been educated by those public charities, whose numbers and necessities would 強いる them in general to content themselves with a very 哀れな recompense, to the entire degradation of the now respectable professions of 法律 and physic.

That unprosperous race of men 一般的に called men of letters are pretty much in the 状況／情勢 which lawyers and 内科医s probably would be in upon the foregoing supposition. In every part of Europe the greater part of them have been educated for the church, but have been 妨げるd by different 推論する／理由s from entering into 宗教上の orders. They have 一般に, therefore, been educated at the public expense, and their numbers are everywhere so 広大な／多数の／重要な as 一般的に to 減ずる the price of their 労働 to a very paltry recompense.

Before the 発明 of the art of printing, the only 雇用 by which a man of letters could make anything by his talents was that of a public or 私的な teacher, or by communicating to other people the curious and useful knowledge which he had acquired himself: and this is still surely a more honourable, a more useful, and in general even a more profitable 雇用 than that other of 令状ing for a bookseller, to which the art of printing has given occasion. The time and 熟考する／考慮する, the genius, knowledge, and 使用／適用 requisite to qualify an 著名な teacher of the sciences, are at least equal to what is necessary for the greatest practitioners in 法律 and physic. But the usual reward of the 著名な teacher 耐えるs no 割合 to that of the lawyer or 内科医; because the 貿易（する） of the one is （人が）群がるd with indigent people who have been brought up to it at the public expense; 反して those of the other two are encumbered with very few who have not been educated at their own. The usual recompense, however, of public and 私的な teachers, small as it may appear, would undoubtedly be いっそう少なく than it is, if the 競争 of those yet more indigent men of letters who 令状 for bread was not taken out of the market. Before the 発明 of the art of printing, a scholar and a beggar seem to have been 条件 very nearly synonymous. The different 知事s of the universities before that time appear to have often 認めるd licences to their scholars to beg.

In 古代の times, before any charities of this 肉親，親類d had been 設立するd for the education of indigent people to the learned professions, the rewards of 著名な teachers appear to have been much more かなりの. Isocrates, in what is called his discourse against the sophists, reproaches the teachers of his own times with inconsistency. "They make the most magnificent 約束s to their scholars," says he, "and 請け負う to teach them to be wise, to be happy, and to be just, and in return for so important a service they 規定する the paltry reward of four or five minae. They who teach 知恵," continues he, ought certainly to be wise themselves; but if any man were to sell such a 取引 for such a price, he would be 罪人／有罪を宣告するd of the most evident folly." He certainly does not mean here to 誇張する the reward, and we may be 保証するd that it was not いっそう少なく than he 代表するs it. Four minae were equal to thirteen 続けざまに猛撃するs six shillings and eightpence: five minae to sixteen 続けざまに猛撃するs thirteen shillings and fourpence. Something not いっそう少なく than the largest of those two sums, therefore, must at that time have been usually paid to the most 著名な teachers at Athens. Isocrates himself 需要・要求するd ten minae, or thirty-three 続けざまに猛撃するs six shillings and eightpence, from each scholar. When he taught at Athens, he is said to have had a hundred scholars. I understand this to be the number whom he taught at one time, or who …に出席するd what we could call one course of lectures, a number which will not appear 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の from so 広大な／多数の／重要な a city to so famous a teacher, who taught, too, what was at that time the most 流行の／上流の of all sciences, rhetoric. He must have made, therefore, by each course of lectures, a thousand minae, or L3333 6s. 8d. A thousand minae, accordingly, is said by Plutarch in another place, to have been his Didactron, or usual price of teaching. Many other 著名な teachers in those times appear to have acquired 広大な／多数の／重要な fortunes. Gorgias made a 現在の to the 寺 of Delphi of his own statue in solid gold. We must not, I pre sume, suppose that it was as large as the life. His way of living, 同様に as that of Hippias and Protagoras, two other 著名な teachers of those times, is 代表するd by Plato as splendid even to ostentation. Plato himself is said to have lived with a good 取引，協定 of magnificence. Aristotle, after having been 教える to Alexander, and most munificently rewarded, as it is universally agreed, both by him and his father Philip, thought it 価値（がある） while, notwithstanding, to return to Athens, ーするために 再開する the teaching of his school. Teachers of the sciences were probably in those times いっそう少なく ありふれた than they （機の）カム to be in an age or two afterwards, when the 競争 had probably somewhat 減ずるd both the price of their 労働 and the 賞賛 for their persons. The most 著名な of them, however, appear always to have enjoyed a degree of consideration much superior to any of the like profession in the 現在の times. The Athenians sent Carneades the Academic, and Diogenes the Stoic, upon a solemn 大使館 to Rome; and though their city had then 拒絶する／低下するd from its former grandeur, it was still an 独立した・無所属 and かなりの 共和国. Carneades, too, was a Babylonian by birth, and as there never was a people more jealous of admitting foreigners to public offices than the Athenians, their consideration for him must have been very 広大な／多数の／重要な.

This 不平等 is upon the whole, perhaps, rather advantageous than hurtful to the public. It may somewhat degrade the profession of a public teacher; but the cheapness of literary education is surely an advantage which 大いに overbalances this trifling inconveniency. The public, too, might derive still greater 利益 from it, if the 憲法 of those schools and colleges, in which education is carried on, was more reasonable than it is at 現在の through the greater part of Europe.

Thirdly, the 政策 of Europe, by 妨害するing the 解放する／自由な 循環／発行部数 of 労働 and 在庫／株 both from 雇用 to 雇用, and from place to place, occasions in some 事例／患者s a very incovenient 不平等 in the whole of the advantages and disadvantages of their different 雇用s.

The 法令 of 見習いの身分制度 妨害するs the 解放する／自由な 循環／発行部数 of 労働 from one 雇用 to another, even in the same place. The 排除的 特権s of 会社／団体s 妨害する it from one place to another, even in the same 雇用.

It frequently happens that while high 給料 are given to the workmen in one 製造（する）, those in another are 強いるd to content themselves with 明らかにする subsistence. The one is in an 前進するing 明言する／公表する, and has, therefore, a continual 需要・要求する for new 禁止（する）d: the other is in a 拒絶する／低下するing 明言する／公表する, and the superabundance of 手渡すs is continually 増加するing. Those two 製造（する）s may いつかs be in the same town, and いつかs in the same neighbourhood, without 存在 able to lend the least 援助 to one another. The 法令 of 見習いの身分制度 may …に反対する it in the one 事例／患者, and both that and an 排除的 会社／団体 in the other. In many different 製造（する）s, however, the 操作／手術s are so much alike, that the workmen could easily change 貿易（する）s with one another, if those absurd 法律s did not 妨げる them. The arts of weaving plain linen and plain silk, for example, are almost 完全に the same. That of weaving plain woollen is somewhat different; but the difference is so insignificant that either a linen or a silk weaver might become a tolerable work in a very few days. If any of those three 資本／首都 製造（する）s, therefore, were decaying, the workmen might find a 資源 in one of the other two which was in a more 繁栄する 条件; and their 給料 would neither rise too high in the 栄えるing, nor 沈む too low in the decaying 製造（する）. The linen 製造（する） indeed is, in England, by a particular 法令, open to everybody; but as it is not much cultivated through the greater part of the country, it can afford no general 資源 to the workmen of other decaying 製造（する）s, who, wherever the 法令 of 見習いの身分制度 takes place, have no other choice but either to come upon the parish, or to work as ありふれた labourers, for which, by their habits, they are much worse qualified than for any sort of 製造（する） that 耐えるs any resemblance to their own. They 一般に, therefore, choose to come upon the parish.

Whatever 妨害するs the 解放する／自由な 循環／発行部数 of 労働 from one 雇用 to another 妨害するs that of 在庫／株 likewise; the 量 of 在庫／株 which can be 雇うd in any 支店 of 商売／仕事 depending very much upon that of the 労働 which can be 雇うd in it. 会社／団体 法律s, however, give いっそう少なく obstruction to the 解放する／自由な 循環／発行部数 of 在庫／株 from one place to another than to that of 労働. It is everywhere much easier for a 豊富な merchant to 得る the 特権 of 貿易（する）ing in a town 法人組織の／企業の, than for a poor artificer to 得る that of working in it.

The obstruction which 会社／団体 法律s give to the 解放する／自由な 循環／発行部数 of 労働 is ありふれた, I believe, to every part of Europe. That which is given to it by the Poor 法律s is, so far as I know, peculiar to England. It consists in the difficulty which a poor man finds in 得るing a 解決／入植地, or even in 存在 許すd to 演習 his 産業 in any parish but that to which he belongs. It is the 労働 of artificers and 製造業者s only of which the 解放する／自由な 循環／発行部数 is 妨害するd by 会社／団体 法律s. The difficulty of 得るing 解決／入植地s 妨害するs even that of ありふれた 労働. It may be 価値（がある） while to give some account of the rise, 進歩, and 現在の 明言する／公表する of this disorder, the greatest perhaps of any in the police of England.

When by the 破壊 of 修道院s the poor had been 奪うd of the charity of those 宗教的な houses, after some other ineffectual 試みる／企てるs for their 救済, it was 制定するd by the 43rd of Elizabeth, c. 2, that every parish should be bound to 供給する for its own poor; and that overseers of the poor should be 毎年 任命するd, who, with the churchwardens, should raise by a parish 率 competent sums for this 目的.

By this 法令 the necessity of 供給するing for their own poor was indispensably 課すd upon every parish. Who were to be considered as the poor of each parish became, therefore, a question of some importance. This question, after some variation, was at last 決定するd by the 13th and 14th of Charles II when it was 制定するd, that forty days' undisturbed 住居 should 伸び（る） any person a 解決／入植地 in any parish; but that within that time it should be lawful for two 司法（官）s of the peace, upon （民事の）告訴 made by the churchwardens or overseers of the poor, to 除去する any new inhabitant to the parish where he was last 合法的に settled; unless he either rented a tenement of ten 続けざまに猛撃するs a year, or could give such 安全 for the 発射する／解雇する of the parish where he was then living, as those 司法（官）s should 裁判官 十分な.

Some 詐欺s, it is said, were committed in consequence of this 法令; parish officers いつかs 賄賂ing their own poor to go clandestinely to another parish, and by keeping themselves 隠すd for forty days to 伸び（る） a 解決／入植地 there, to the 発射する／解雇する of that to which they 適切に belonged. It was 制定するd, therefore, by the 1st of James II that the forty days' undisturbed 住居 of any person necessary to 伸び（る） a 解決／入植地 should be accounted only from the time of his 配達するing notice in 令状ing, of the place of his abode and the number of his family, to one of the churchwardens or overseers of the parish where he （機の）カム to dwell.

But parish officers, it seems, were not always more honest with regard to their own, than they had been with regard to other parishes, and いつかs connived at such 侵入占拠s, receiving the notice, and taking no proper steps in consequence of it. As every person in a parish, therefore, was supposed to have an 利益／興味 to 妨げる as much as possible their 存在 重荷（を負わせる）d by such 侵入者s, it was その上の 制定するd by the 3rd of William III that the forty days' 住居 should be accounted only from the 出版（物） of such notice in 令状ing on Sunday in the church, すぐに after divine service.

"After all," says Doctor 燃やす, "this 肉親，親類d of 解決／入植地, by continuing forty days after 出版（物） of notice in 令状ing, is very seldom 得るd; and the design of the 行為／法令／行動するs is not so much for 伸び（る）ing of 解決／入植地s, as for the 避けるing of them, by persons coming into a parish clandestinely: for the giving of notice is only putting a 軍隊 upon the parish to 除去する. But if a person's 状況／情勢 is such, that it is doubtful whether he is 現実に removable or not, he shall by giving of notice 強要する the parish either to 許す him a 解決／入植地 uncontested, by 苦しむing him to continue forty days; or, by 除去するing him, to try the 権利."

This 法令, therefore, （判決などを）下すd it almost impracticable for a poor man to 伸び（る） a new 解決／入植地 in the old way, by forty days' inhabitancy. But that it might not appear to 妨げる altogether the ありふれた people of one parish from ever 設立するing themselves with 安全 in another, it 任命するd four other ways by which a 解決／入植地 might be 伸び（る）d without any notice 配達するd or published. The first was, by 存在 税金d to parish 率s and 支払う／賃金ing them; the second, by 存在 elected into an 年次の parish office, and serving in it a year; the third, by serving an 見習いの身分制度 in the parish; the fourth, by 存在 雇うd into service there for a year, and continuing in the same service during the whole of it.

Nobody can 伸び（る） a 解決／入植地 by either of the two first ways, but by the public 行為 of the whole parish, who are too 井戸／弁護士席 aware of the consequences to 可決する・採択する any new-comer who has nothing but his 労働 to support him, either by 税金ing him to parish 率s, or by electing him into a parish office.

No married man can 井戸／弁護士席 伸び（る） any 解決／入植地 in either of the two last ways. An 見習い工 is 不十分な ever married; and it is expressly 制定するd that no married servant shall 伸び（る） any 解決／入植地 by 存在 雇うd for a year. The 主要な／長／主犯 影響 of introducing 解決／入植地 by service has been to put out in a 広大な／多数の／重要な 手段 the old fashion of 雇うing for a year, which before had been so customary in England, that even at this day, if no particular 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語 is agreed upon, the 法律 ーするつもりであるs that every servant is 雇うd for a year. But masters are not always willing to give their servants a 解決／入植地 by 雇うing them in this manner; and servants are not always willing to be so 雇うd, because, as every last 解決／入植地 発射する／解雇するs all the foregoing, they might その為に lose their 初めの 解決／入植地 in the places of their nativity, the habitation of their parents and relations.

No 独立した・無所属 workman, it is evident, whether labourer or artificer, is likely to 伸び（る） any new 解決／入植地 either by 見習いの身分制度 or by service. When such a person, therefore, carried his 産業 to a new parish, he was liable to be 除去するd, how healthy and industrious soever, at the caprice of any churchwarden or overseer, unless he either rented a tenement of ten 続けざまに猛撃するs a year, a thing impossible for one who has nothing but his 労働 to live by; or could give such 安全 for the 発射する／解雇する of the parish as two 司法（官）s of the peace should 裁判官 十分な. What 安全 they shall 要求する, indeed, is left altogether to their discretion; but they cannot 井戸／弁護士席 要求する いっそう少なく than thirty 続けざまに猛撃するs, it having been 制定するd that the 購入（する） even of a freehold 広い地所 of いっそう少なく than thirty 続けざまに猛撃するs' value shall not 伸び（る） any person a 解決／入植地, as not 存在 十分な for the 発射する／解雇する of the parish. But this is a 安全 which 不十分な any man who lives by 労働 can give; and much greater 安全 is frequently 需要・要求するd.

ーするために 回復する in some 手段 that 解放する／自由な 循環／発行部数 of 労働 which those different 法令s had almost 完全に taken away, the 発明 of 証明書s was fallen upon. By the 8th and 9th of William III it was 制定するd that if any person should bring a 証明書 from the parish where he was last 合法的に settled, subscribed by the churchwardens and overseers of the poor, and 許すd by two 司法（官）s of the peace, that every other parish should be 強いるd to receive him; that he should not be removable 単に upon account of his 存在 likely to become chargeable, but only upon his becoming 現実に chargeable, and that then the parish which 認めるd the 証明書 should be 強いるd to 支払う／賃金 the expense both of his 維持／整備 and of his 除去. And ーするために give the most perfect 安全 to the parish where such 証明書d man should come to reside, it was その上の 制定するd by the same 法令 that he should 伸び（る） no 解決／入植地 there by any means whatever, except either by renting a tenement of ten 続けざまに猛撃するs a year, or by serving upon his own account in an 年次の parish office for one whole year; and その結果 neither by notice, nor by service, nor by 見習いの身分制度, nor by 支払う／賃金ing parish 率s. By the 12th of Queen Anne, too, stat. 1, c. 18, it was その上の 制定するd that neither the servants nor 見習い工s of such 証明書d man should 伸び（る） any 解決／入植地 in the parish where he resided under such 証明書.

How far this 発明 has 回復するd that 解放する／自由な 循環／発行部数 of 労働 which the 先行する 法令s had almost 完全に taken away, we may learn from the に引き続いて very judicious 観察 of Doctor 燃やす. "It is obvious," says he, "that there are divers good 推論する／理由s for 要求するing 証明書s with persons coming to settle in any place; すなわち, that persons residing under them can 伸び（る） no 解決／入植地, neither by 見習いの身分制度, nor by service, nor by giving notice, nor by 支払う／賃金ing parish 率s; that they can settle neither 見習い工s nor servants; that if they become chargeable, it is certainly known whither to 除去する them, and the parish shall be paid for the 除去, and for their 維持／整備 in the 合間; and that if they 落ちる sick, and cannot be 除去するd, the parish which gave the 証明書 must 持続する them: 非，不，無 of all which can be without a 証明書. Which 推論する／理由s will 持つ／拘留する proportionably for parishes not 認めるing 証明書s in ordinary 事例／患者s; for it is far more than an equal chance, but that they will have the 証明書d persons again, and in a worse 条件." The moral of this 観察 seems to be that 証明書s ought always to be 要求するd by the parish where any poor man comes to reside, and that they ought very seldom to be 認めるd by that which he 提案するs to leave. "There is somewhat of hardship in this 事柄 of 証明書s," says the same very intelligent author in his History of the Poor 法律s, "by putting it in the 力／強力にする of a parish officer to 拘留する a man as it were for life; however inconvenient it may be for him to continue at that place where he has had the misfortune to acquire what is called a 解決／入植地, or whatever advantage he may 提案する to himself by living どこかよそで."

Though a 証明書 carries along with it no testimonial of good behaviour, and certifies nothing but that the person belongs to the parish to which he really does belong, it is altogether discretionary in the parish officers either to 認める or to 辞退する it. A mandamus was once moved for, says Doctor 燃やす, to 強要する the churchwardens and overseers to 調印する a 証明書; but the 法廷，裁判所 of King's （法廷の）裁判 拒絶するd the 動議 as a very strange 試みる／企てる.

The very unequal price of 労働 which we frequently find in England in places at no 広大な／多数の／重要な distance from one another is probably 借りがあるing to the obstruction which the 法律 of 解決／入植地s gives to a poor man who would carry his 産業 from one parish to another without a 証明書. A 選び出す／独身 man, indeed, who is healthy and industrious, may いつかs reside by sufferance without one; but a man with a wife and family who should 試みる／企てる to do so would in most parishes be sure of 存在 除去するd, and if the 選び出す／独身 man should afterwards marry, he would 一般に be 除去するd likewise. The scarcity of 手渡すs in one parish, therefore, cannot always be relieved by their superabundance in another, as it is 絶えず in Scotland, and, I believe, in all other countries where there is no difficulty of 解決／入植地. In such countries, though 給料 may いつかs rise a little in the neighbourhood of a 広大な／多数の／重要な town, or wherever else there is an 驚くべき／特命の／臨時の 需要・要求する for 労働, and 沈む 徐々に as the distance from such places 増加するs, till they 落ちる 支援する to the ありふれた 率 of the country; yet we never 会合，会う with those sudden and unaccountable differences in the 給料 of 隣人ing places which we いつかs find in England, where it is often more difficult for a poor man to pass the 人工的な 境界 of a parish than an arm of the sea or a 山の尾根 of high mountains, natural 境界s which いつかs separate very distinctly different 率s of 給料 in other countries.

To 除去する a man who has committed no misdemeanour from the parish where he chooses to reside is an evident 違反 of natural liberty and 司法（官）. The ありふれた people of England, however, so jealous of their liberty, but like the ありふれた people of most other countries never rightly understanding wherein it consists, have now for more than a century together 苦しむd themselves to be exposed to this 圧迫 without a 治療（薬）. Though men of reflection, too, have いつかs complained of the 法律 of 解決／入植地s as a public grievance; yet it has never been the 反対する of any general popular clamour, such as that against general 令状s, an abusive practice undoubtedly, but such a one as was not likely to occasion any general 圧迫. There is 不十分な a poor man in England of forty years of age, I will 投機・賭ける to say, who has not in some part of his life felt himself most cruelly 抑圧するd by this illcontrived 法律 of 解決／入植地s.

I shall 結論する this long 一時期／支部 with 観察するing that, though anciently it was usual to 率 給料, first by general 法律s 延長するing over the whole kingdom, and afterwards by particular orders of the 司法（官）s of peace in every particular 郡, both these practices have now gone 完全に into disuse. "By the experience of above four hundred years," says Doctor 燃やす, "it seems time to lay aside all endeavours to bring under strict 規則s, what in its own nature seems incapable of minute 制限; for if all persons in the same 肉親，親類d of work were to receive equal 給料, there would be no emulation, and no room left for 産業 or ingenuity."

Particular 行為／法令／行動するs of 議会, however, still 試みる／企てる いつかs to 規制する 給料 in particular 貿易（する）s and in particular places. Thus the 8th of George III 禁じるs under 激しい 刑罰，罰則s all master tailors in London, and five miles 一連の会議、交渉／完成する it, from giving, and their workmen from 受託するing, more than two shillings and sevenpence halfpenny a day, except in the 事例／患者 of a general 嘆く／悼むing. Whenever the 立法機関 試みる／企てるs to 規制する the differences between masters and their workmen, its counsellors are always the masters. When the 規則, therefore, is in favour of the workmen, it is always just and equitable; but it is いつかs さもなければ when in favour of the masters. Thus the 法律 which 強いるs the masters in several different 貿易（する）s to 支払う／賃金 their workmen in money and not in goods is やめる just and equitable. It 課すs no real hardship upon the masters. It only 強いるs them to 支払う／賃金 that value in money, which they pretended to 支払う／賃金, but did not always really 支払う／賃金, in goods. This 法律 is in favour of the workmen: but the 8th of George III is in favour of the masters. When masters 連合させる together ーするために 減ずる the 給料 of their workmen, they 一般的に enter into a 私的な 社債 or 協定 not to give more than a 確かな 行う under a 確かな 刑罰，罰則. Were the workmen to enter into a contrary combination of the same 肉親，親類d, not to 受託する of a 確かな 行う under a 確かな 刑罰，罰則, the 法律 would punish them very 厳しく; and if it dealt impartially, it would 扱う／治療する the masters in the same manner. But the 8th of George III 施行するs by 法律 that very 規則 which masters いつかs 試みる／企てる to 設立する by such combinations. The （民事の）告訴 of the workmen, that it puts the ablest and most industrious upon the same 地盤 with an ordinary workman, seems perfectly 井戸／弁護士席 設立するd.

In 古代の times, too, it was usual to 試みる／企てる to 規制する the 利益（をあげる）s of merchants and other 売買業者s, by 率ing the price both of 準備／条項s and other goods. The assize of bread is, so far as I know, the only 残余 of this 古代の usage. Where there is an 排除的 会社／団体, it may perhaps be proper to 規制する the price of the first necessary of life. But where there is 非，不，無, the 競争 will 規制する it much better than any assize. The method of 直す／買収する，八百長をするing the assize of bread 設立するd by the 31st of George II could not be put in practice in Scotland, on account of a defect in the 法律; its 死刑執行 depending upon the office of a clerk of the market, which does not 存在する there. This defect was not 治療（薬）d till the 3rd of George III. The want of an assize occasioned no sensible inconveniency, and the 設立 of one, in the few places where it has yet taken place, has produced no sensible advantage. In the greater part of the towns of Scotland, however, there is an 合併／会社設立 of パン職人s who （人命などを）奪う，主張する 排除的 特権s, though they are not very 厳密に guarded.

The 割合 between the different 率s both of 給料 and 利益（をあげる） in the different 雇用s of 労働 and 在庫／株, seems not to be much 影響する／感情d, as has already been 観察するd, by the riches or poverty, the 前進するing, 静止している, or 拒絶する／低下するing 明言する／公表する of the society. Such 革命s in the public 福利事業, though they 影響する／感情 the general 率s both of 給料 and 利益（をあげる）, must in the end 影響する／感情 them 平等に in all different 雇用s. The 割合 between them, therefore, must remain the same, and cannot 井戸／弁護士席 be altered, at least for any かなりの time, by any such 革命s.