Historical materialism is the 拡張 of the 原則s of dialectical materialism to the 熟考する／考慮する of social life, an 使用／適用 of the 原則s of dialectical materialism to the phenomena of the life of society, to the 熟考する／考慮する of society and of its history.

When 述べるing their dialectical method, Marx and Engels usually 言及する to Hegel as the philosopher who 明確に表すd the main features of dialectics. This, however, does not mean that the dialectics of Marx and Engels is 同一の with the dialectics of Hegel. As a 事柄 of fact, Marx and Engels took from the Hegelian dialectics only its "合理的な／理性的な kernel," casting aside its Hegelian idealistic 爆撃する, and developed dialectics その上の so as to lend it a modern 科学の form.

"My dialectic method," says Marx, "is not only different from the Hegelian, but is its direct opposite. To Hegel, ... the 過程 of thinking which, under the 指名する of 'the Idea,' he even transforms into an 独立した・無所属 支配する, is the demiurgos (creator) of the real world, and the real world is only the 外部の, phenomenal form of 'the Idea.' With me, on the contrary, the ideal is nothing else than the 構成要素 world 反映するd by the human mind and translated into forms of thought." (Marx, Afterword to the Second German 版 of 容積／容量 I of 資本／首都 .)

Dialectics comes from the Greek dialego,  to discourse, to 審議. In 古代の times dialectics was the art of arriving at the truth by 公表する／暴露するing the contradictions in the argument of an 対抗者 and 打ち勝つing these contradictions. There were philosophers in 古代の times who believed that the 公表，暴露 of contradictions in thought and the 衝突／不一致 of opposite opinions was the best method of arriving at the truth. This dialectical method of thought, later 延長するd to the phenomena of nature, developed into the dialectical method of apprehending nature, which regards the phenomena of nature as 存在 in constant movement and を受けるing constant change, and the 開発 of nature as the result of the 開発 of the contradictions in nature, as the result of the interaction of …に反対するd 軍隊s in nature.

In its essence, dialectics is the direct opposite of metaphysics.

1) The 主要な／長／主犯 features of the Marxist dialectical method  are as follows:

a) Contrary to metaphysics, dialectics does not regard nature as an 偶発の agglomeration of things, of phenomena, unconnected with, 孤立するd from, and 独立した・無所属 of, each other, but as a connected and integral whole, in which things, phenomena are organically connected with, 扶養家族 on, and 決定するd by, each other.

The dialectical method therefore 持つ／拘留するs that no 現象 in nature can be understood if taken by itself, 孤立するd from surrounding phenomena, inasmuch as any 現象 in any realm of nature may become meaningless to us if it is not considered in 関係 with the surrounding 条件s, but 離婚d from them; and that, 副／悪徳行為 versa, any 現象 can be understood and explained if considered in its inseparable 関係 with surrounding phenomena, as one 条件d by surrounding phenomena.

b)  Contrary to metaphysics, dialectics 持つ／拘留するs that nature is not a 明言する／公表する of 残り／休憩（する） and immobility, stagnation and immutability, but a 明言する／公表する of continuous movement and change, of continuous 再開 and 開発, where something is always arising and developing, and something always 崩壊するing and dying away.

The dialectical method therefore 要求するs that phenomena should be considered not only from the 見地 of their interconnection and interdependence, but also from the 見地 of their movement, their change, their 開発, their coming into 存在 and going out of 存在.

The dialectical method regards as important まず第一に／本来 not that which at the given moment seems to be 持続する and yet is already beginning to die away, but that which is arising and developing, even though at the given moment it may appear to be not 持続する, for the dialectical method considers invincible only that which is arising and developing.

"All nature," says Engels, "from the smallest thing to the biggest. from 穀物s of sand to suns, from protista (the 最初の／主要な living 独房s - J. St.) to man, has its 存在 in eternal coming into 存在 and going out of 存在, in a ceaseless flux, in 不安ing 動議 and change (Ibid.,  p. 48.)

c)  Contrary to metaphysics, dialectics does not regard the 過程 of 開発 as a simple 過程 of growth, where quantitative changes do not lead to qualitative changes, but as a 開発 which passes from insignificant and imperceptible quantitative changes to open' 根底となる changes' to qualitative changes; a 開発 in which the qualitative changes occur not 徐々に, but 速く and 突然の, taking the form of a leap from one 明言する／公表する to another; they occur not accidentally but as the natural result of an accumulation of imperceptible and 漸進的な quantitative changes.

The dialectical method therefore 持つ／拘留するs that the 過程 of 開発 should be understood not as movement in a circle, not as a simple repetition of what has already occurred, but as an onward and 上向き movement, as a 移行 from an old qualitative 明言する／公表する to a new qualitative 明言する／公表する, as a 開発 from the simple to the コンビナート／複合体, from the lower to the higher:

"Nature," says Engels, "is the 実験（する） of dialectics. and it must be said for modern 自然科学 that it has furnished 極端に rich and daily 増加するing 構成要素s for this 実験（する）, and has thus 証明するd that in the last 分析 nature's 過程 is dialectical and not metaphysical, that it does not move in an eternally uniform and 絶えず repeated circle. but passes through a real history. Here prime について言及する should be made of Darwin, who dealt a 厳しい blow to the metaphysical conception of nature by 証明するing that the 有機の world of today, 工場／植物s and animals, and その結果 man too, is all a 製品 of a 過程 of 開発 that has been in 進歩 for millions of years." (Ibid.,  p. 2.)

"In physics ... every change is a passing of 量 into 質, as a result of a quantitative change of some form of movement either inherent in a 団体／死体 or imparted to it. For example, the 気温 of water has at first no 影響 on its liquid 明言する／公表する; but as the 気温 of liquid water rises or 落ちるs, a moment arrives when this 明言する／公表する of cohesion changes and the water is 変えるd in one 事例／患者 into steam and in the other into ice.... A 限定された 最小限 現在の is 要求するd to make a platinum wire glow; every metal has its melting 気温; every liquid has a 限定された 氷点の point and boiling point at a given 圧力, as far as we are able with the means at our 処分 to 達成する the 要求するd 気温s; finally, every gas has its 批判的な point at which, by proper 圧力 and 冷静な／正味のing, it can be 変えるd into a liquid 明言する／公表する.... What are known as the constants of physics (the point at which one 明言する／公表する passes into another - J. St.) are in most 事例／患者s nothing but 任命s for the nodal points at which a quantitative (change) 増加する or 減少（する） of movement 原因（となる）s a qualitative change in the 明言する／公表する of the given 団体／死体, and at which, その結果, 量 is transformed into 質." (Ibid.,  pp. 527-28.)

"Chemistry may be called the science of the qualitative changes which take place in 団体／死体s as the 影響 of changes of quantitative composition. his was already known to Hegel.... Take oxygen: if the 分子 含む／封じ込めるs three 原子s instead of the customary two, we get オゾン, a 団体／死体 definitely 際立った in odor and reaction from ordinary oxygen. And what shall we say of the different 割合s in which oxygen 連合させるs with 窒素 or sulphur, and each of which produces a 団体／死体 qualitatively different from all other 団体／死体s !" (Ibid.,  p. 528.)

"This is 正確に the Hegelian nodal line of 手段 relations in which at 確かな 限定された nodal points, the 純粋に quantitative 増加する or 減少（する） gives rise to a qualitative leap, for example, in the 事例／患者 of water which is heated or 冷静な／正味のd, where boiling point and 氷点の point are the nodes at which - under normal 圧力 - the leap to a new aggregate 明言する／公表する takes place, and where その結果 量 is transformed into 質." (Ibid.,  pp. 45-46.)

The dialectical method therefore 持つ／拘留するs that the 過程 of 開発 from the lower to the higher takes place not as a harmonious 広げるing of phenomena, but as a 公表，暴露 of the contradictions inherent in things and phenomena, as a "struggle" of opposite 傾向s which operate on the basis of these contradictions.

"In its proper meaning," Lenin says, "dialectics is the 熟考する／考慮する of the contradiction within the very essence of things."  (Lenin, Philosophical Notebooks,  p. 265.)

"開発 is the 'struggle' of opposites." (Lenin, Vol. XIII, p. 301.)

It is 平易な to understand how immensely important is the 拡張 of the 原則s of the dialectical method to the 熟考する／考慮する of social life and the history of society, and how immensely important is the 使用／適用 of these 原則s to the history of society and to the practical activities of the party of the proletariat.

If there are no 孤立するd phenomena in the world, if all phenomena are interconnected and interdependent, then it is （疑いを）晴らす that every social system and every social movement in history must be 評価するd not from the 見地 of "eternal 司法（官）" or some other preconceived idea, as is not infrequently done by historians, but from the 見地 of the 条件s which gave rise to that system or that social movement and with which they are connected.

The slave system would be senseless, stupid and unnatural under modern 条件s. But under the 条件s of a 崩壊するing 原始の communal system, the slave system is a やめる 理解できる and natural 現象, since it 代表するs an 前進する on the 原始の communal system

The 需要・要求する for a bourgeois-democratic 共和国 when tsardom and bourgeois society 存在するd, as, let us say, in Russia in 1905, was a やめる 理解できる, proper and 革命の 需要・要求する; for at that time a bourgeois 共和国 would have meant a step 今後. But now, under the 条件s of the U.S.S.R., the 需要・要求する for a bourgeois-democratic 共和国 would be a senseless and counterrevolutionary 需要・要求する; for a bourgeois 共和国 would be a retrograde step compared with the Soviet 共和国.

Everything depends on the 条件s, time and place.

It is （疑いを）晴らす that without such a historical  approach to social phenomena, the 存在 and 開発 of the science of history is impossible; for only such an approach saves the science of history from becoming a jumble of 事故s and an agglomeration of most absurd mistakes.

その上の, if the world is in a 明言する／公表する of constant movement and 開発, if the dying away of the old and the upgrowth of the new is a 法律 of 開発, then it is （疑いを）晴らす that there can be no "immutable" social systems, no "eternal 原則s" of 私的な 所有物／資産／財産 and 開発／利用, no "eternal ideas" of the subjugation of the 小作農民 to the landlord, of the 労働者 to the 資本主義者.

Hence, the 資本主義者 system can be 取って代わるd by the 社会主義者 system, just as at one time the 封建的 system was 取って代わるd by the 資本主義者 system.

Hence, we must not base our orientation on the strata of society which are no longer developing, even though they at 現在の 構成する the predominant 軍隊, but on those strata which are developing and have a 未来 before them, even though they at 現在の do not 構成する the predominant 軍隊.

In the eighties of the past century, in the period of the struggle between the Marxists and the Narodniks, the proletariat in Russia 構成するd an insignificant 少数，小数派 of the 全住民, 反して the individual 小作農民s 構成するd the 広大な 大多数 of the 全住民. But the proletariat was developing as a class, 反して the peasantry as a class was 崩壊するing. And just because the proletariat was developing as a class the Marxists based their orientation on the proletariat. And they were not mistaken; for, as we know, the proletariat subsequently grew from an insignificant 軍隊 into a first-率 historical and political 軍隊.

Hence, in order not to err in 政策, one must look 今後, not backward.

その上の, if the passing of slow quantitative changes into 早い and abrupt qualitative changes is a 法律 of 開発, then it is （疑いを）晴らす that 革命s made by 抑圧するd classes are a やめる natural and 必然的な 現象.

Hence, the 移行 from capitalism to 社会主義 and the 解放 of the working class from the yoke of capitalism cannot be 影響d by slow changes, by 改革（する）s, but only by a qualitative change of the 資本主義者 system, by 革命.

Hence, in order not to err in 政策, one must be a 革命の, not a 改革論者.

その上の, if 開発 proceeds by way of the 公表，暴露 of 内部の contradictions, by way of 衝突／不一致s between opposite 軍隊s on the basis of these contradictions and so as to 打ち勝つ these contradictions, then it is （疑いを）晴らす that the class struggle of the proletariat is a やめる natural and 必然的な 現象.

Hence, we must not cover up the contradictions of the 資本主義者 system, but 公表する／暴露する and unravel them; we must not try to check the class struggle but carry it to its 結論.

Hence, in order not to err in 政策, one must 追求する an uncompromising proletarian class 政策, not a 改革論者 政策 of harmony of the 利益／興味s of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, not a compromisers' 政策 of the "growing" of capitalism into 社会主義.

Such is the Marxist dialectical method when 適用するd to social life, to the history of society.

As to Marxist philosophical materialism, it is fundamentally the direct opposite of philosophical idealism.

2) The 主要な／長／主犯 features of Marxist philosophical materialism  are as follows:

a) Contrary to idealism, which regards the world as the embodiment of an "絶対の idea," a "全世界の／万国共通の spirit," "consciousness," Marx's philosophical materialism 持つ／拘留するs that the world is by its very nature 構成要素,  that the multifold phenomena of the world 構成する different forms of 事柄 in 動議, that interconnection and interdependence of phenomena as 設立するd by the dialectical method, are a 法律 of the 開発 of moving 事柄, and that the world develops in 一致 with the 法律s of movement of 事柄 and stands in no need of a "全世界の／万国共通の spirit."

"The materialistic 見通し on nature," says Engels, "means no more than 簡単に conceiving nature just as it 存在するs, without any foreign admixture." (Marx and Engels, Vol. XIV, p. 651.)

b) Contrary to idealism, which 主張するs that only our consciousness really 存在するs, and that the 構成要素 world, 存在, nature, 存在するs only in our consciousness' in our sensations, ideas and perceptions, the Marxist philosophical materialism 持つ／拘留するs that 事柄, nature, 存在, is an 客観的な reality 存在するing outside and 独立した・無所属 of our consciousness; that 事柄 is 最初の／主要な, since it is the source of sensations, ideas, consciousness, and that consciousness is 第２位, derivative, since it is a reflection of 事柄, a reflection of 存在; that thought is a 製品 of 事柄 which in its 開発 has reached a high degree of perfection, すなわち, of the brain, and the brain is the 組織／臓器 of thought; and that therefore one cannot separate thought from 事柄 without committing a 墓／厳粛／彫る／重大な error. Engels says:

"The question of the relation of thinking to 存在, the relation of spirit to nature is the 最高位の question of the whole of philosophy.... The answers which the philosophers gave to this question 分裂（する） them into two 広大な／多数の／重要な （軍の）野営地，陣営s. Those who 主張するd the primacy of spirit to nature ... 構成するd the （軍の）野営地，陣営 of idealism.  The others, who regarded nature as 最初の／主要な, belong to the さまざまな schools of materialism."  (Marx, Selected 作品,  Vol. I, p. 329.)

"The 構成要素, sensuously perceptible world to which we ourselves belong is the only reality.... Our consciousness and thinking, however supra-感覚的な they may seem, are the 製品 of a 構成要素, bodily 組織／臓器, the brain. 事柄 is not a 製品 of mind, but mind itself is 単に the highest 製品 of 事柄." (Ibid.,  p. 332.)

"It is impossible to separate thought from 事柄 that thinks.  事柄 is the 支配する of all changes." (Ibid.,  p. 302.)

"Materialism in general 認めるs objectively real 存在 (事柄) as 独立した・無所属 of consciousness, sensation, experience.... Consciousness is only the reflection of 存在, at best an だいたい true (適する, perfectly exact) reflection of it." (Lenin, Vol. XIII, pp. 266-67.)

- "事柄 is that which, 事実上の／代理 upon our sense-組織／臓器s, produces sensation; 事柄 is the 客観的な reality given to us in sensation.... 事柄, nature, 存在, the physical-is 最初の／主要な, and spirit, consciousness, sensation, the psychical-is 第２位." (Ibid.,  pp. 119-20.)

- "The world picture is a picture of how 事柄 moves and of how '事柄 thinks.'" (Ibid.,  p. 288.)

- "The brain is the 組織／臓器 of thought." (Ibid.,  p. 125.)

非難するing the 論題／論文 of Kant and other idealists that the world is unknowable and that there are "things-in-themselves" which are unknowable, and defending the 井戸／弁護士席-known materialist 論題／論文 that our knowledge is authentic knowledge, Engels 令状s:

"The most telling refutation of this as of all other philosophical crotchets is practice, すなわち, 実験 and 産業. If we are able to 証明する the correctness of our conception of a natural 過程 by making it ourselves, bringing it into 存在 out of its 条件s and making it serve our own 目的s into the 取引, then there is an end to the Kantian ungraspable 'thing-in-itself.' The 化学製品 実体s produced in the 団体／死体s of 工場／植物s and animals remained such 'things-in-themselves' until 有機の chemistry began to produce them one after another, その結果 the 'thing-in-itself' became a thing for us, as, for instance, alizarin, the coloring 事柄 of the madder, which we no longer trouble to grow ill the madder roots in the field, but produce much more cheaply and 簡単に from coal tar. For 300 years the Copernican solar system was a hypothesis with a hundred, a thousand or ten thousand chances to one in its 好意, but still always a hypothesis. But when Leverrier, by means of the data 供給するd by this system, not only deduced the necessity of the 存在 of an unknown 惑星, but also calculated the position in the heavens which this 惑星 must やむを得ず 占領する, and when Galle really 設立する this 惑星, the Copernican system was 証明するd." (Marx, Selected 作品,  Vol. I, p. 330.)

"同時代の fideism does not at all 拒絶する science; all it 拒絶するs is the '誇張するd （人命などを）奪う，主張するs' of science, to wit, its （人命などを）奪う，主張する to 客観的な truth. If 客観的な truth 存在するs (as the materialists think), if 自然科学, 反映するing the outer world in human 'experience,' is alone 有能な of giving us 客観的な truth, then all fideism is 絶対 反駁するd." (Lenin, Vol. XIII, p. 102.)

It is 平易な to understand how immensely important is the 拡張 of the 原則s of philosophical materialism to the 熟考する／考慮する of social life, of the history of society, and how immensely important is the 使用／適用 of these 原則s to the history of society and to the practical activities of the party of the proletariat.

If the 関係 between the phenomena of nature and their interdependence are 法律s of the 開発 of nature, it follows, too, that the 関係 and interdependence of the phenomena of social life are 法律s of the 開発 of society, and not something 偶発の.

Hence, social life, the history of society, 中止するs to be an agglomeration of "事故s", for the history of society becomes a 開発 of society によれば 正規の／正選手 法律s, and the 熟考する／考慮する of the history of society becomes a science.

Hence, the practical activity of the party of the proletariat must not be based on the good wishes of "優れた individuals." not on the dictates of "推論する／理由," "全世界の／万国共通の morals," etc., but on the 法律s of 開発 of society and on the 熟考する／考慮する of these 法律s.

その上の, if the world is knowable and our knowledge of the 法律s of 開発 of nature is authentic knowledge, having the 有効性，効力 of 客観的な truth, it follows that social life, the 開発 of society, is also knowable, and that the data of science regarding the 法律s of 開発 of society are authentic data having the 有効性，効力 of 客観的な truths.

Hence, the science of the history of society, にもかかわらず all the 複雑さ of the phenomena of social life, can become as 正確な a science as, let us say, biology, and 有能な of making use of the 法律s of 開発 of society for practical 目的s.

Hence, the party of the proletariat should not guide itself in its practical activity by casual 動機s, but by the 法律s of 開発 of society, and by practical deductions from these 法律s.

Hence, 社会主義 is 変えるd from a dream of a better 未来 for humanity into a science.

Hence, the 社債 between science and practical activity, between theory and practice, their まとまり, should be the guiding 星／主役にする of the party of the proletariat.

その上の, if nature, 存在, the 構成要素 world, is 最初の／主要な, and consciousness, thought, is 第２位, derivative; if the 構成要素 world 代表するs 客観的な reality 存在するing 独立して of the consciousness of men, while consciousness is a reflection of this 客観的な reality, it follows that the 構成要素 life of society, its 存在, is also 最初の／主要な, and its spiritual life 第２位, derivative, and that the 構成要素 life of society is an 客観的な reality 存在するing 独立して of the will of men, while the spiritual life of society is a reflection of this 客観的な reality, a reflection of 存在.

Hence, the source of 形式 of the spiritual life of society, the origin of social ideas, social theories, political 見解（をとる）s and political 会・原則s, should not be sought for in the ideas, theories, 見解（をとる）s and political 会・原則s themselves, but in the 条件s of the 構成要素 life of society, in social 存在, of which these ideas, theories, 見解（をとる）s, etc., are the reflection.

Hence, if in different periods of the history of society different social ideas, theories, 見解（をとる）s and political 会・原則s are to be 観察するd; if under the slave system we 遭遇（する） 確かな social ideas, theories, 見解（をとる）s and political 会・原則s, under feudalism others, and under capitalism others still, this is not to be explained by the "nature", the "所有物／資産／財産s" of the ideas, theories, 見解（をとる）s and political 会・原則s themselves but by the different 条件s of the 構成要素 life of society at different periods of social 開発.

Whatever is the 存在 of a society, whatever are the 条件s of 構成要素 life of a society, such are the ideas, theories political 見解（をとる）s and political 会・原則s of that society.

In this 関係, Marx says:

"It is not the consciousness of men that 決定するs their 存在, but, on the contrary, their social 存在 that 決定するs their consciousness." (Marx Selected 作品, Vol. I, p. 269.)

The 落ちる of the utopians, 含むing the Narodniks, anarchists and 社会主義者-革命のs, was 予定, の中で other things to the fact that they did not 認める the 最初の／主要な 役割 which the 条件s of the 構成要素 life of society play in the 開発 of society, and, 沈むing to idealism, did not base their practical activities on the needs of the 開発 of the 構成要素 life of society, but, 独立して of and in spite of these needs, on "ideal 計画（する）s" and "all-embracing 事業／計画（する）s", 離婚d from the real life of society.

The strength and vitality of Marxism-Leninism lies in the fact that it does base its practical activity on the needs of the 開発 of the 構成要素 life of society and never 離婚s itself from the real life of society.

It does not follow from Marx's words, however, that social ideas, theories, political 見解（をとる）s and political 会・原則s are of no significance in the life of society, that they do not reciprocally 影響する／感情 social 存在, the 開発 of the 構成要素 条件s of the life of society. We have been speaking so far of the origin  of social ideas, theories, 見解（をとる）s and political 会・原則s, of the way they arise,  of the fact that the spiritual life of society is a reflection of the 条件s of its 構成要素 life. As regards the significance  of social ideas, theories, 見解（をとる）s and political 会・原則s, as regards their 役割 in history, historical materialism, far from 否定するing them, 強調する／ストレスs the important 役割 and significance of these factors in the life of society, in its history.

There are different 肉親，親類d of social ideas and theories. There are old ideas and theories which have 生き延びるd their day and which serve the 利益／興味s of the moribund 軍隊s of society. Their significance lies in the fact that they 妨害する the 開発, the 進歩 of society. Then there are new and 前進するd ideas and theories which serve the 利益／興味s of the 前進するd 軍隊s of society. Their significance lies in the fact that they 容易にする the 開発, the 進歩 of society; and their significance is the greater the more 正確に they 反映する the needs of 開発 of the 構成要素 life of society.

New social ideas and theories arise only after the 開発 of the 構成要素 life of society has 始める，決める new 仕事s before society. But once they have arisen they become a most potent 軍隊 which 容易にするs the carrying out of the new 仕事s 始める，決める by the 開発 of the 構成要素 life of society, a 軍隊 which 容易にするs the 進歩 of society. It is 正確に here that the tremendous 組織するing, 動員するing and transforming value of new ideas, new theories, new political 見解（をとる）s and new political 会・原則s manifests itself. New social ideas and theories arise 正確に because they are necessary to society, because it is impossible  to carry out the 緊急の 仕事s of 開発 of the 構成要素 life of society without their 組織するing, 動員するing and transforming 活動／戦闘. Arising out of the new 仕事s 始める，決める by the 開発 of the 構成要素 life of society, the new social ideas and theories 軍隊 their way through, become the 所有／入手 of the 集まりs, 動員する and 組織する them against the moribund 軍隊s of society, and thus 容易にする the 倒す of these 軍隊s, which 妨害する the 開発 of the 構成要素 life of society.

Thus social ideas, theories and political 会・原則s, having arisen on the basis of the 緊急の 仕事s of the 開発 of the 構成要素 life of society, the 開発 of social 存在, themselves then 反応する upon social 存在, upon the 構成要素 life of society, creating the 条件s necessary for 完全に carrying out the 緊急の 仕事s of the 構成要素 life of society, and for （判決などを）下すing its その上の 開発 possible.

In this 関係, Marx says:

"Theory becomes a 構成要素 軍隊 as soon as it has gripped the 集まりs." (Marx and Engels, Vol. I, p. 406.)

The 落ちる of the "経済学者s" and the Mensheviks was 予定, の中で other things, to the fact that they did not 認める the 動員するing, 組織するing and transforming 役割 of 前進するd theory, of 前進するd ideas and, 沈むing to vulgar materialism, 減ずるd the 役割 of these factors almost to nothing, thus 非難するing the Party to passivity and inanition.

The strength and vitality of Marxism-Leninism is derived from the fact that it relies upon an 前進するd theory which 正確に 反映するs the needs of 開発 of the 構成要素 life of society, that it elevates theory to a proper level, and that it みなすs it its 義務 to 利用する every ounce of the 動員するing, 組織するing and transforming 力／強力にする of this theory.

That is the answer historical materialism gives to the question of the relation between social 存在 and social consciousness, between the 条件s of 開発 of 構成要素 life and the 開発 of the spiritual life of society.

3) Historical Materialism. 

It now remains to elucidate the に引き続いて question: What, from the viewpoint of historical materialism, is meant by the "条件s of 構成要素 life of society" which in the final 分析 決定する the physiognomy of society, its ideas, 見解（をとる）s, political 会・原則s, etc.?

What, after all, are these "条件s of 構成要素 life of society," what are their distinguishing features?

There can be no 疑問 that the 概念 "条件s of 構成要素 life of society" 含むs, first of all, nature which surrounds society, geographical 環境, which is one of the 不可欠の and constant 条件s of 構成要素 life of society and which, of course, 影響（力）s the 開発 of society. What 役割 does geographical 環境 play in the 開発 of society? Is geographical 環境 the 長，指導者 軍隊 決定するing the physiognomy of society, the character of the social system of man, the 移行 from one system to another, or isn't it?

Historical materialism answers this question in the 消極的な.

Geographical 環境 is unquestionably one of the constant and 不可欠の 条件s of 開発 of society and, of course, 影響（力）s the 開発 of society, 加速するs or retards its 開発. But its 影響（力） is not the 決定するing  影響（力）, inasmuch as the changes and 開発 of society proceed at an incomparably faster 率 than the changes and 開発 of geographical 環境. in the space of 3000 years three different social systems have been successively superseded in Europe: the 原始の communal system, the slave system and the 封建的 system. In the eastern part of Europe, in the U.S.S.R., even four social systems have been superseded. Yet during this period geographical 条件s in Europe have either not changed at all, or have changed so わずかに that 地理学 takes no 公式文書，認める of them. And that is やめる natural. Changes in geographical 環境 of any importance 要求する millions of years, 反して a few hundred or a couple of thousand years are enough for even very important changes in the system of human society.

It follows from this that geographical 環境 cannot be the 長，指導者 原因（となる）, the 決定するing  原因（となる） of social 開発; for that which remains almost 不変の in the course of tens of thousands of years cannot be the 長，指導者 原因（となる） of 開発 of that which を受けるs 根底となる changes in the course of a few hundred years

その上の, there can be no 疑問 that the 概念 "条件s of 構成要素 life of society" also 含むs growth of 全住民, 濃度／密度 of 全住民 of one degree or another; for people are an 必須の element of the 条件s of 構成要素 life of society, and without a 限定された 最小限 number of people there can be no 構成要素 life of society. Is growth of 全住民 the 長，指導者 軍隊 that 決定するs the character of the social system of man, or isn't it?

Historical materialism answers this question too in the 消極的な.

Of course, growth of 全住民 does 影響（力） the 開発 of society, does 容易にする or retard the 開発 of society, but it cannot be the 長，指導者 軍隊 of 開発 of society, and its 影響（力） on the 開発 of society cannot be the 決定するing  影響（力） because, by itself, growth of 全住民 does not furnish the 手がかり（を与える） to the question why a given social system is 取って代わるd 正確に by such and such a new system and not by another, why the 原始の communal system is 後継するd 正確に by the slave system, the slave system by the 封建的 system, and the 封建的 system by the bourgeois system, and not by some other.

If growth of 全住民 were the 決定するing 軍隊 of social 開発, then a higher 濃度／密度 of 全住民 would be bound to give rise to a 対応して higher type of social system. But we do not find this to be the 事例／患者. The 濃度／密度 of 全住民 in 中国 is four times as 広大な／多数の／重要な as in the U.S.A., yet the U.S.A. stands higher than 中国 in the 規模 of social 開発; for in 中国 a 半分-封建的 system still 勝つ／広く一帯に広がるs, 反して the U.S.A. has long ago reached the highest 行う／開催する／段階 of 開発 of capitalism. The 濃度／密度 of 全住民 in Belgium is I9 times as 広大な／多数の／重要な as in the U.S.A., and 26 times as 広大な／多数の／重要な as in the U.S.S.R. Yet the U.S.A. stands higher than Belgium in the 規模 of social 開発; and as for the U.S.S.R., Belgium lags a whole historical 時代 behind this country, for in Belgium the 資本主義者 system 勝つ／広く一帯に広がるs, 反して the U.S.S.R. has already done away with capitalism and has 始める，決める up a 社会主義者 system.

It follows from this that growth of 全住民 is not, and cannot be, the 長，指導者 軍隊 of 開発 of society, the 軍隊 which 決定するs  the character of the social system, the physiognomy of society.

a) What, then, is the 長，指導者 軍隊 in the コンビナート／複合体 of 条件s of 構成要素 life of society which 決定するs the physiognomy of society, the character of the social system, the 開発 of society from one system to another?

This 軍隊, historical materialism 持つ／拘留するs, is the method of procuring the means of life  necessary for human 存在, the 方式 of 生産／産物 of 構成要素 values  - food, 着せる／賦与するing, footwear, houses, 燃料, 器具s of 生産／産物, etc. - which are 不可欠の for the life and 開発 of society.

ーするために live, people must have food, 着せる／賦与するing, footwear, 避難所, 燃料, etc.; ーするために have these 構成要素 values, people must produce them; and ーするために produce them, people must have the 器具s of 生産／産物 with which food, 着せる／賦与するing, footwear, 避難所, 燃料, etc., are produced, they must be able to produce these 器具s and to use them.

The 器具s of 生産／産物  wherewith 構成要素 values are produced, the people  who operate the 器具s of 生産／産物 and carry on the 生産／産物 of 構成要素 values thanks to a 確かな 生産／産物 experience  and labor 技術  - all these elements 共同で 構成する the 生産力のある 軍隊s  of society.

But the 生産力のある 軍隊s are only one 面 of 生産／産物, only one 面 of the 方式 of 生産／産物, an 面 that 表明するs the relation of men to the 反対するs and 軍隊s of nature which they make use of for the 生産／産物 of 構成要素 values. Another 面 of 生産／産物, another 面 of the 方式 of 生産／産物, is the relation of men to each other in the 過程 of 生産／産物, men's relations of 生産／産物.  Men carry on a struggle against nature and 利用する nature for the 生産／産物 of 構成要素 values not in 孤立／分離 from each other, not as separate individuals, but in ありふれた, in groups, in societies. 生産／産物, therefore, is at all times and under all 条件s social  生産／産物. In the 生産／産物 of 構成要素 values men enter into 相互の relations of one 肉親，親類d or another within 生産／産物, into relations of 生産／産物 of one 肉親，親類d or another. These may be relations of co-操作／手術 and 相互の help between people who are 解放する／自由な from 開発／利用; they may be relations of 支配 and subordination; and, lastly, they may be 過度期の from one form of relations of 生産／産物 to another. But whatever the character of the relations of 生産／産物 may be, always and in every system they 構成する just as 必須の an element of 生産／産物 as the 生産力のある 軍隊s of society.

"In 生産／産物," Marx says, "men not only 行為／法令／行動する on nature but also on one another. They produce only by co-operating in a 確かな way and 相互に 交流ing their activities. ーするために produce, they enter into 限定された 関係s and relations with one another and only within these social 関係s and relations does their 活動／戦闘 on nature, does 生産／産物, take place." (Marx and Engels, Vol. V, p. 429.)

b) The first feature  of 生産／産物 is that it never stays at one point for a long time and is always in a 明言する／公表する of change and 開発, and that, その上に, changes in the 方式 of 生産／産物 必然的に call 前へ／外へ changes in the whole social system, social ideas, political 見解（をとる）s and political 会・原則s - they call 前へ／外へ a 再建 of the whole social and political order. At different 行う／開催する／段階s of 開発 people make use of different 方式s of 生産／産物, or, to put it more crudely, lead different manners of life. In the 原始の commune there is one 方式 of 生産／産物, under slavery there is another 方式 of 生産／産物, under feudalism a third 方式 of 生産／産物 and so on. And, 対応して, men's social system, the spiritual life of men, their 見解（をとる）s and political 会・原則s also 変化させる.

Whatever is the 方式 of 生産／産物 of a society, such in the main is the society itself, its ideas and theories, its political 見解（をとる）s and 会・原則s.

Or, to put it more crudely, whatever is man's manner of life such is his manner of thought.

This means that the history of 開発 of society is above all the history of the 開発 of 生産／産物, the history of the 方式s of 生産／産物 which 後継する each other in the course of centuries, the history of the 開発 of 生産力のある 軍隊s and of people's relations of 生産／産物.

Hence, the history of social 開発 is at the same time the history of the 生産者s of 構成要素 values themselves, the history of the laboring 集まりs, who are the 長，指導者 軍隊 in the 過程 of 生産／産物 and who carry on the 生産／産物 of 構成要素 values necessary for the 存在 of society.

Hence, if historical science is to be a real science, it can no longer 減ずる the history of social 開発 to the 活動／戦闘s of kings and generals, to the 活動／戦闘s of "征服者／勝利者s" and "subjugators" of 明言する／公表するs, but must above all 充てる itself to the history of the 生産者s of 構成要素 values, the history of the laboring 集まりs, the history of peoples.

Hence, the 手がかり（を与える） to the 熟考する／考慮する of the 法律s of history of society must not be sought in men's minds, in the 見解（をとる）s and ideas of society, but in the 方式 of 生産／産物 practiced by society in any given historical period; it must be sought in the 経済的な life of society.

Hence, the prime 仕事 of historical science is to 熟考する／考慮する and 公表する／暴露する the 法律s of 生産／産物, the 法律s of 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s and of the relations of 生産／産物, the 法律s of 経済的な 開発 of society.

Hence, if the party of the proletariat is to be a real party, it must above all acquire a knowledge of the 法律s of 開発 of 生産／産物, of the 法律s of 経済的な 開発 of society.

Hence, if it is not to err in 政策, the party of the proletariat must both in 草案ing its program and in its practical activities proceed まず第一に／本来 from the 法律s of 開発 of 生産／産物 from the 法律s of 経済的な 開発 of society.

c) The second feature  of 生産／産物 is that its changes and 開発 always begin with changes and 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s, and in the first place, with changes and 開発 of the 器具s of 生産／産物. 生産力のある 軍隊s are therefore the most 動きやすい and 革命の element of 生産／産物. First the 生産力のある 軍隊s of society change and develop, and then, depending  on these changes and in 順応／服従 with them,  men's relations of 生産／産物, their 経済的な relations, change. This, however, does not mean that the relations of 生産／産物 do not 影響（力） the 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s and that the latter are not 扶養家族 on the former. While their 開発 is 扶養家族 on the 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s, the relations of 生産／産物 in their turn 反応する upon the 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s, 加速するing or retarding it. In this 関係 it should be 公式文書，認めるd that the relations of 生産／産物 cannot for too long a time lag behind and be in a 明言する／公表する of contradiction to the growth of the 生産力のある 軍隊s, inasmuch as the 生産力のある 軍隊s can develop in 十分な 手段 only when the relations of 生産／産物 correspond to the character, the 明言する／公表する of the 生産力のある 軍隊s and 許す 十分な 範囲 for their 開発. Therefore, however much the relations of 生産／産物 may lag behind the 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s, they must, sooner or later, come into correspondence with - and 現実に do come into correspondence with - the level of 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s, the character of the 生産力のある 軍隊s. さもなければ we would have a 根底となる 違反 of the まとまり of the 生産力のある 軍隊s and the relations of 生産／産物 within the system of 生産／産物, a disruption of 生産／産物 as a whole, a 危機 of 生産／産物, a 破壊 of 生産力のある 軍隊s.

An instance in which the relations of 生産／産物 do not correspond to the character of the 生産力のある 軍隊s, 衝突 with them, is the 経済的な crises in 資本主義者 countries, where 私的な 資本主義者 所有権 of the means of 生産／産物 is in glaring incongruity with the social character of the 過程 of 生産／産物, with the character of the 生産力のある 軍隊s. This results in 経済的な crises, which lead to the 破壊 of 生産力のある 軍隊s. その上に, this incongruity itself 構成するs the 経済的な basis of social 革命, the 目的 of which IS to destroy the 存在するing relations of 生産／産物 and to create new relations of 生産／産物 corresponding to the character of the 生産力のある 軍隊s.

In contrast, an instance in which the relations of 生産／産物 完全に correspond to the character of the 生産力のある 軍隊s is the 社会主義者 国家の economy of the U.S.S.R., where the social 所有権 of the means of 生産／産物 fully corresponds to the social character of the 過程 of 生産／産物, and where, because of this, 経済的な crises and the 破壊 of 生産力のある 軍隊s are unknown.

その結果, the 生産力のある 軍隊s are not only the most 動きやすい and 革命の element in 生産／産物, but are also the 決定するing element in the 開発 of 生産／産物.

Whatever are the 生産力のある 軍隊s such must be the relations of 生産／産物.

While the 明言する／公表する of the 生産力のある 軍隊s furnishes the answer to the question - with what 器具s of 生産／産物 do men produce the 構成要素 values they need? - the 明言する／公表する of the relations of 生産／産物 furnishes the answer to another question - who owns the means of 生産／産物  (the land, forests, waters, mineral 資源s, raw 構成要素s, 器具s of 生産／産物, 生産／産物 前提s, means of transportation and communication, etc.), who 命令（する）s the means of 生産／産物, whether the whole of society, or individual persons, groups, or classes which 利用する them for the 開発／利用 of other persons, groups or classes?

Here is a rough picture of the 開発 of 生産力のある 軍隊s from 古代の times to our day. The 移行 from 天然のまま 石／投石する 道具s to the 屈服する and arrow, and the …を伴ってing 移行 from the life of hunters to the domestication of animals and 原始の pasturage; the 移行 from 石／投石する 道具s to metal 道具s (the アイロンをかける axe, the 木造の 骨折って進む fitted with an アイロンをかける coulter, etc.), with a corresponding 移行 to tillage and 農業; a その上の 改良 in metal 道具s for the working up of 構成要素s, the introduction of the blacksmith's bellows, the introduction of pottery, with a corresponding 開発 of handicrafts, the 分離 of handicrafts from 農業, the 開発 of an 独立した・無所属 handicraft 産業 and, subsequently, of 製造（する）; the 移行 from handicraft 道具s to machines and the 変形 of handicraft and 製造（する） into machine 産業; the 移行 to the machine system and the rise of modern large-規模 machine 産業 - such is a general and far from 完全にする picture of the 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s of society in the course of man's history. It will be （疑いを）晴らす that the 開発 and 改良 of the 器具s of 生産／産物 was 影響d by men who were 関係のある to 生産／産物, and not 独立して of men; and, その結果, the change and 開発 of the 器具s of 生産／産物 was …を伴ってd by a change and 開発 of men, as the most important element of the 生産力のある 軍隊s, by a change and 開発 of their 生産／産物 experience, their labor 技術, their ability to 扱う the 器具s of 生産／産物.

In 順応／服従 with the change and 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s of society in the course of history, men's relations of 生産／産物, their 経済的な relations also changed and developed.

Five main  types of relations of 生産／産物 are known to history: 原始の communal, slave, 封建的, 資本主義者 and 社会主義者.

The basis of the relations of 生産／産物 under the 原始の communal system is that the means of 生産／産物 are socially owned. This in the main corresponds to the character of the 生産力のある 軍隊s of that period. 石／投石する 道具s, and, later, the 屈服する and arrow, 妨げるd the 可能性 of men 個々に 戦闘ing the 軍隊s of nature and beasts of prey. ーするために gather the fruits of the forest, to catch fish, to build some sort of habitation, men were 強いるd to work in ありふれた if they did not want to die of 餓死, or 落ちる 犠牲者 to beasts of prey or to 隣接地の societies. Labor in ありふれた led to the ありふれた 所有権 of the means of 生産／産物, 同様に as of the fruits of 生産／産物. Here the conception of 私的な 所有権 of the means of 生産／産物 did not yet 存在する, except for the personal 所有権 of 確かな 器具／実施するs of 生産／産物 which were at the same time means of 弁護 against beasts of prey. Here there was no 開発／利用, no classes.

The basis of the relations of 生産／産物 under the slave system is that the slave-owner owns the means of 生産／産物, he also owns the 労働者 in 生産／産物 - the slave, whom he can sell, 購入（する）, or kill as though he were an animal. Such relations of 生産／産物 in the main correspond to the 明言する／公表する of the 生産力のある 軍隊s of that period. Instead of 石／投石する 道具s, men now have metal 道具s at their 命令（する）; instead of the wretched and 原始の husbandry of the hunter, who knew neither pasturage nor tillage, there now appear pasturage tillage, handicrafts, and a 分割 of labor between these 支店s of 生産／産物. There appears the 可能性 of the 交流 of 製品s between individuals and between societies, of the accumulation of wealth in the 手渡すs of a few, the actual accumulation of the means of 生産／産物 in the 手渡すs of a 少数，小数派, and the 可能性 of subjugation of the 大多数 by a 少数，小数派 and the 転換 of the 大多数 into slaves. Here we no longer find the ありふれた and 解放する／自由な labor of all members of society in the 生産／産物 過程 - here there 勝つ／広く一帯に広がるs the 軍隊d labor of slaves, who are 偉業／利用するd by the 非，不，無-laboring slave-owners. Here, therefore, there is no ありふれた 所有権 of the means of 生産／産物 or of the fruits of 生産／産物. It is 取って代わるd by 私的な 所有権. Here the slaveowner appears as the prime and 主要な／長／主犯 所有物／資産／財産 owner in the 十分な sense of the 称する，呼ぶ／期間／用語.

Rich and poor, exploiters and 偉業／利用するd, people with 十分な 権利s and people with no 権利s, and a 猛烈な／残忍な class struggle between them - such is the picture of the slave system.

The basis of the relations of 生産／産物 under the 封建的 system is that the 封建的 lord owns the means of 生産／産物 and does not fully own the 労働者 in 生産／産物 - the serf, whom the 封建的 lord can no longer kill, but whom he can buy and sell. と一緒に of 封建的 所有権 there 存在するs individual 所有権 by the 小作農民 and the handicraftsman of his 器具／実施するs of 生産／産物 and his 私的な 企業 based on his personal labor. Such relations of 生産／産物 in the main correspond to the 明言する／公表する of the 生産力のある 軍隊s of that period. その上の 改良s in the smelting and working of アイロンをかける; the spread of the アイロンをかける 骨折って進む and the ぼんやり現れる; the その上の 開発 of 農業, horticulture, viniculture and 酪農場ing; the 外見 of manufactories と一緒に of the handicraft workshops - such are the characteristic features of the 明言する／公表する of the 生産力のある 軍隊s.

The new 生産力のある 軍隊s 需要・要求する that the 労働者 shall 陳列する，発揮する some 肉親，親類d of 率先 in 生産／産物 and an inclination for work, an 利益／興味 in work. The 封建的 lord therefore discards the slave, as a 労働者 who has no 利益／興味 in work and is 完全に without 率先, and prefers to を取り引きする the serf, who has his own husbandry, 器具／実施するs of 生産／産物, and a 確かな 利益／興味 in work 必須の for the cultivation of the land and for the 支払い（額） in 肉親，親類d of a part of his 収穫 to the 封建的 lord.

Here 私的な 所有権 is その上の developed. 開発／利用 is nearly as 厳しい as it was under slavery - it is only わずかに mitigated. A class struggle between exploiters and 偉業／利用するd is the 主要な／長／主犯 feature of the 封建的 system.

The basis of the relations of 生産／産物 under the 資本主義者 system is that the 資本主義者 owns the means of 生産／産物, but not the 労働者s in 生産／産物 - the 行う 労働者s, whom the 資本主義者 can neither kill nor sell because they are 本人自身で 解放する／自由な, but who are 奪うd of means of 生産／産物 and) in order not to die of hunger, are 強いるd to sell their labor 力／強力にする to the 資本主義者 and to 耐える the yoke of 開発／利用. と一緒に of 資本主義者 所有物／資産／財産 in the means of 生産／産物, we find, at first on a wide 規模, 私的な 所有物／資産／財産 of the 小作農民s and handicraftsmen in the means of 生産／産物, these 小作農民s and handicraftsmen no longer 存在 serfs, and their 私的な 所有物／資産／財産 存在 based on personal labor. In place of the handicraft workshops and manufactories there appear 抱擁する mills and factories equipped with 機械／機構. In place of the manorial 広い地所s tilled by the 原始の 器具／実施するs of 生産／産物 of the 小作農民, there now appear large 資本主義者 farms run on 科学の lines and 供給（する）d with 農業の 機械／機構

The new 生産力のある 軍隊s 要求する that the 労働者s in 生産／産物 shall be better educated and more intelligent than the downtrodden and ignorant serfs, that they be able to understand 機械／機構 and operate it 適切に. Therefore, the 資本主義者s prefer to を取り引きする 行う-労働者s, who are 解放する／自由な from the 社債s of serfdom and who are educated enough to be able 適切に to operate 機械／機構.

But having developed 生産力のある 軍隊s to a tremendous extent, capitalism has become enmeshed in contradictions which it is unable to solve. By producing larger and larger 量s of 商品／必需品s, and 減ずるing their prices, capitalism 強めるs 競争, 廃虚s the 集まり of small and medium 私的な owners, 変えるs them into proletarians and 減ずるs their 購入（する）ing 力／強力にする, with the result that it becomes impossible to 配置する／処分する／したい気持ちにさせる of the 商品／必需品s produced. On the other 手渡す, by 拡大するing 生産／産物 and concentrating millions of 労働者s in 抱擁する mills and factories, capitalism lends the 過程 of 生産／産物 a social character and thus 土台を崩すs its own 創立／基礎, inasmuch as the social character of the 過程 of 生産／産物 需要・要求するs the social 所有権 of the means of 生産／産物; yet the means of 生産／産物 remain 私的な 資本主義者 所有物／資産／財産, which is 相いれない with the social character of the 過程 of 生産／産物.

These irreconcilable contradictions between the character of the 生産力のある 軍隊s and the relations of 生産／産物 make themselves felt in 定期刊行物 crises of over-生産／産物, when the 資本主義者s, finding no 効果的な 需要・要求する for their goods 借りがあるing to the 廃虚 of the 集まり of the 全住民 which they themselves have brought about, are compelled to 燃やす 製品s, destroy 製造（する）d goods, 一時停止する 生産／産物, and destroy 生産力のある 軍隊s at a time when millions of people are 軍隊d to 苦しむ 失業 and 餓死, not because there are not enough goods, but because there is an overproduction of goods.

This means that the 資本主義者 relations of 生産／産物 have 中止するd to correspond to the 明言する／公表する of 生産力のある 軍隊s of society and have come into irreconcilable contradiction with them.

This means that capitalism is 妊娠している with 革命, whose 使節団 it is to 取って代わる the 存在するing 資本主義者 所有権 of the means of 生産／産物 by 社会主義者 所有権.

This means that the main feature of the 資本主義者 system is a most 激烈な／緊急の class struggle between the exploiters and the 偉業／利用するd.

The basis of the relations of 生産／産物 under the 社会主義者 system, which so far has been 設立するd only in the U.S.S.R., is the social 所有権 of the means of 生産／産物. Here there are no longer exploiters and 偉業／利用するd. The goods produced are 分配するd によれば labor 成し遂げるd, on the 原則: "He who does not work, neither shall he eat." Here the 相互の relations of people in the 過程 of 生産／産物 are 示すd by comradely 協調 and the 社会主義者 相互の 援助 of 労働者s who are 解放する／自由な from 開発／利用. Here the relations of 生産／産物 fully correspond to the 明言する／公表する of 生産力のある 軍隊s; for the social character of the 過程 of 生産／産物 is 増強するd by the social 所有権 of the means of 生産／産物.

For this 推論する／理由 社会主義者 生産／産物 in the U.S.S.R. knows no 定期刊行物 crises of over-生産／産物 and their …を伴ってing absurdities.

For this 推論する／理由, the 生産力のある 軍隊s here develop at an 加速するd pace; for the relations of 生産／産物 that correspond to them 申し込む／申し出 十分な 範囲 for such 開発.

Such is the picture of the 開発 of men's relations of 生産／産物 in the course of human history.

Such is the dependence of the 開発 of the relations of 生産／産物 on the 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s of society, and まず第一に／本来, on the 開発 of the 器具s of 生産／産物, the dependence by virtue of which the changes and 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s sooner or later lead to corresponding changes and 開発 of the relations of 生産／産物.

"The use and 捏造／製作 of 器具s of labor," says Marx, "although 存在するing in the germ の中で 確かな 種類 of animals, is 特に characteristic of the human labor-過程, and Franklin therefore defines man as a 道具-making animal. 遺物s of bygone 器具s of labor 所有する the same importance for the 調査 of extinct economical forms of society, as do 化石 bones for the 決意 of extinct 種類 of animals. It is not the articles made, but how they are made that enables us to distinguish different economical 時代s. 器具s of labor not only 供給（する） a 基準 of the degree of 開発 to which human labor has 達成するd, but they are also 指示する人（物）s of the social 条件s under which that labor is carried on." (Marx, 資本／首都,  Vol. I, 1935, p. 121.)

- "Social relations are closely bound up with 生産力のある 軍隊s. In acquiring new 生産力のある 軍隊s men change their 方式 of 生産／産物; and in changing their 方式 of 生産／産物, in changing the way of 収入 their living, they change all their social relations. The 手渡す-mill gives you society with the 封建的 lord; the steam-mill, society with the 産業の 資本主義者." (Marx and Engels, Vol. V, p. 564.)

- "There is a continual movement of growth in 生産力のある 軍隊s, of 破壊 in social relations, of 形式 in ideas; the only immutable thing is the abstraction of movement." (Ibid.,  p. 364.)

"経済的な 生産／産物 and the structure of society of every historical 時代 やむを得ず arising therefrom 構成する the 創立／基礎 for the political and 知識人 history of that 時代; ... その結果 (ever since the 解散 of the primeval communal 所有権 of land) all history has been a history of class struggles, of struggles between 偉業／利用するd and 偉業／利用するing, between 支配するd and 支配するing classes at さまざまな 行う／開催する／段階s of social 開発; ... this struggle, however, has now reached a 行う／開催する／段階 where the 偉業／利用するd and 抑圧するd class (the proletariat) can no longer emancipate itself from the class which 偉業／利用するs and 抑圧するs it (the bourgeoisie), without at the same time for ever 解放する／自由なing the whole of society from 開発／利用, 圧迫 and class struggles...."

Firstly, because men are not 解放する／自由な to choose one 方式 of 生産／産物 or another, because as every new 世代 enters life it finds 生産力のある 軍隊s and relations of 生産／産物 already 存在するing as the result of the work of former 世代s, 借りがあるing to which it is 強いるd at first to 受託する and adapt itself to everything it finds ready-made in the sphere of 生産／産物 ーするために be able to produce 構成要素 values.

Secondly, because, when 改善するing one 器具 of 生産／産物 or another, one clement of the 生産力のある 軍隊s or another, men do not realize, do not understand or stop to 反映する what social  results these 改良s will lead to, but only think of their everyday 利益／興味s, of lightening their labor and of 安全な・保証するing some direct and 有形の advantage for themselves.

When, 徐々に and gropingly, 確かな members of 原始の communal society passed from the use of 石／投石する 道具s to the use of アイロンをかける 道具s, they, of course, did not know and did not stop to 反映する what social  results this 革新 would lead to; they did not understand or realize that the change to metal 道具s meant a 革命 in 生産／産物, that it would in the long run lead to the slave system. They 簡単に 手配中の，お尋ね者 to lighten their labor and 安全な・保証する an 即座の and 有形の advantage; their conscious activity was 限定するd within the 狭くする bounds of this everyday personal 利益／興味.

When, in the period of the 封建的 system, the young bourgeoisie of Europe began to 築く, と一緒に of the small guild workshops, large manufactories, and thus 前進するd the 生産力のある 軍隊s of society, it, of course, did not know and did not stop to 反映する what social  consequences this 革新 would lead to; it did not realize or understand that this "small" 革新 would lead to a 再編成するing of social 軍隊s which was to end in a 革命 both against the 力／強力にする of kings, whose 好意s it so 高度に valued, and against the nobility, to whose 階級s its 真っ先の 代表者／国会議員s not infrequently aspired. It 簡単に 手配中の，お尋ね者 to lower the cost of producing goods, to throw larger 量s of goods on the markets of Asia and of recently discovered America, and to make bigger 利益（をあげる）s. Its conscious activity was 限定するd within the 狭くする bounds of this commonplace practical 目的（とする）.

When the ロシアの 資本主義者s, in 合同 with foreign 資本主義者s, energetically implanted modern large-規模 machine 産業 in Russia, while leaving tsardom 損なわれていない and turning the 小作農民s over to the tender mercies of the landlords, they, of course, did not know and did not stop to 反映する what social  consequences this 広範囲にわたる growth of 生産力のある 軍隊s would lead to; they did not realize or understand that this big leap in the realm of the 生産力のある 軍隊s of society would lead to a 再編成するing of social 軍隊s that would enable the proletariat to 影響 a union with the peasantry and to bring about a 勝利を得た 社会主義者 革命. They 簡単に 手配中の，お尋ね者 to 拡大する 産業の 生産／産物 to the 限界, to 伸び（る） 支配（する）／統制する of the 抱擁する home market, to become monopolists, and to squeeze as much 利益（をあげる） as possible out of the 国家の economy. Their conscious activity did not 延長する beyond their commonplace, 厳密に practical 利益／興味s.

Accordingly, Marx says:

"In the social 生産／産物 of their life (that is. in the 生産／産物 of the 構成要素 values necessary to the life of men - J. St.), men enter into 限定された relations that are 不可欠の and 独立した・無所属 of their will, relations of 生産／産物 which correspond to a 限定された 行う／開催する／段階 of 開発 of their 構成要素 生産力のある 軍隊s." (Marx, Selected 作品,  Vol. I, p 269).

"The proletariat," says Marx, "during its contest with the bourgeoisie is compelled, by the 軍隊 of circumstances, to 組織する itself as a class...by means of a 革命, it makes itself the 判決，裁定 class, and, as such, sweeps away by 軍隊 the old 条件s of 生産／産物...." (Manifesto of the 共産主義者 Party,  1938, p. 52.)

- "The proletariat will use its political 最高位 to ひったくる, by degrees, all 資本／首都 from the bourgeoisie, to centralize all 器具s of 生産／産物 in the 手渡すs of the 明言する／公表する, i.e., of the proletariat 組織するd as the 判決，裁定 class; and to 増加する the total of 生産力のある 軍隊s as 速く as possible." (Ibid.,  p. 50 )

- "軍隊 is the midwife of every old society 妊娠している with a new one." (Marx, 資本／首都,  Vol. I, 1955, p. 603.)

"In the social 生産／産物 of their life, men enter into 限定された relations that are 不可欠の and 独立した・無所属 of their will, relations of 生産／産物 which correspond to a 限定された 行う／開催する／段階 of 開発 of their 構成要素 生産力のある 軍隊s. The sum total of these relations of 生産／産物 構成するs the 経済的な structure of society, the real 創立／基礎, on which rises a 合法的な and political superstructure and to which correspond 限定された forms of social consciousness. The 方式 of 生産／産物 of 構成要素 life 条件s the social, political and 知識人 life 過程 in general. It is not the consciousness of men that 決定するs their 存在, but, on the contrary, their social 存在 that 決定するs their consciousness. At a 確かな 行う／開催する／段階 of their 開発, the 構成要素 生産力のある 軍隊s of society come in 衝突 with the 存在するing relations of 生産／産物, or - what is but a 合法的な 表現 for the same thing - with the 所有物／資産／財産 relations within which they have been at work hitherto. From forms of 開発 of the 生産力のある 軍隊s these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an 時代 of social 革命. With the change of the 経済的な 創立／基礎 the entire 巨大な superstructure is more or いっそう少なく 速く transformed. In considering such 変形s a distinction should always be made between the 構成要素 変形 of the 経済的な 条件s of 生産／産物, which can be 決定するd with the precision of 自然科学, and the 合法的な, political, 宗教的な, aesthetic or philosophic - in short, 観念的な forms in which men become conscious of this 衝突 and fight it out. Just as our opinion of an individual is not based on what he thinks of himself, so can we not 裁判官 of such a period of 変形 by its own consciousness; on the contrary this consciousness must be explained rather from the contradictions of 構成要素 life, from the 存在するing 衝突 between the social 生産力のある 軍隊s and the relations of 生産／産物. No social order ever 死なせる／死ぬs before all the produc tive 軍隊s for which there is room in it have developed; and new, higher relations of 生産／産物 never appear before the 構成要素 条件s of their 存在 have 円熟したd in the womb of the old society itself. Therefore mankind always 始める，決めるs itself only such 仕事s as it can solve; since looking at the 事柄 more closely, it will always be 設立する that the 仕事 itself arises only when the 構成要素 条件s for its 解答 already 存在する or are at least in the 過程 of 形式." (Marx, Selected 作品,  Vol. I, pp. 269-70.)

Such are the 主要な／長／主犯 features of dialectical and historical materialism.