Many hundreds of thousands of years ago, during an 時代, not yet definitely determinable, of that period of the earth's history known to geologists as the Tertiary period, most likely に向かって the end of it, a 特に 高度に-developed race of anthropoid apes lived somewhere in the 熱帯の zone - probably on a 広大な／多数の／重要な continent that has now sunk to the 底（に届く） of the Indian Ocean. Darwin has given us an approximate description of these ancestors of ours. They were 完全に covered with hair, they had 耐えるd and pointed ears, and they lived in 禁止（する）d in the trees.

First, 借りがあるing to their way of living which meant that the 手渡すs had different 機能（する）／行事s than the feet when climbing, these apes began to lose the habit of using their 手渡すs to walk and 可決する・採択するd a more and more 築く posture. This was the 決定的な step in the 移行 from ape to man.

All extant anthropoid apes can stand 築く and move about on their feet alone, but only in 事例／患者 of 緊急の need and in a very clumsy way. Their natural gait is in a half-築く posture and 含むs the use of the 手渡すs. The 大多数 残り／休憩（する） the knuckles of the 握りこぶし on the ground and, with 脚s drawn up, swing the 団体／死体 through their long 武器, much as a 手足を不自由にする／（物事を）損なう moves on crutches. In general, all the 移行 行う／開催する／段階s from walking on all fours to walking on two 脚s are still to be 観察するd の中で the apes today. The latter gait, however, has never become more than a 一時しのぎの物，策 for any of them.

It stands to 推論する／理由 that if 築く gait の中で our hairy ancestors became first the 支配する and then, in time, a necessity, other diverse 機能（する）／行事s must, in the 合間, have devolved upon the 手渡すs. Already の中で the apes there is some difference in the way the 手渡すs and the feet are 雇うd. In climbing, as について言及するd above, the 手渡すs and feet have different uses. The 手渡すs are used おもに for 集会 and 持つ／拘留するing food in the same way as the fore paws of the lower 哺乳動物s are used. Many apes use their 手渡すs to build themselves nests in the trees or even to 建設する roofs between the 支店s to 保護する themselves against the 天候, as the chimpanzee, for example, does. With their 手渡すs they しっかり掴む sticks to defend themselves against enemies, or 砲撃する their enemies with fruits and 石／投石するs. In 捕らわれた they use their 手渡すs for a number of simple 操作／手術s copied from human 存在s. It is in this that one sees the 広大な／多数の／重要な 湾 between the 未開発の 手渡す of even the most man-like apes and the human 手渡す that has been 高度に perfected by hundreds of thousands of years of 労働. The number and general 協定 of the bones and muscles are the same in both 手渡すs, but the 手渡す of the lowest savage can 成し遂げる hundreds of 操作／手術s that no simian 手渡す can imitate-no simian 手渡す has ever fashioned even the crudest 石／投石する knife.

The first 操作／手術s for which our ancestors 徐々に learned to adapt their 手渡すs during the many thousands of years of 移行 from ape to man could have been only very simple ones. The lowest savages, even those in whom regression to a more animal-like 条件 with a 同時の physical degeneration can be assumed, are にもかかわらず far superior to these 過度期の 存在s. Before the first flint could be fashioned into a knife by human 手渡すs, a period of time probably elapsed in comparison with which the historical period known to us appears insignificant. But the 決定的な step had been taken, the 手渡す had become 解放する／自由な and could henceforth 達成する ever greater dexterity; the greater 柔軟性 thus acquired was 相続するd and 増加するd from 世代 to 世代.

Thus the 手渡す is not only the 組織／臓器 of 労働, it is also the 製品 of 労働. Only by 労働, by adaptation to ever new 操作／手術s, through the 相続物件 of muscles, ligaments, and, over longer periods of time, bones that had undergone special 開発 and the ever-新たにするd 雇用 of this 相続するd finesse in new, more and more 複雑にするd 操作／手術s, have given the human 手渡す the high degree of perfection 要求するd to conjure into 存在 the pictures of a Raphael, the statues of a Thorwaldsen, the music of a Paganini.

But the 手渡す did not 存在する alone, it was only one member of an integral, 高度に コンビナート／複合体 organism. And what 利益d the 手渡す, 利益d also the whole 団体／死体 it served; and this in two ways.

In the first place, the 団体／死体 利益d from the 法律 of correlation of growth, as Darwin called it. This 法律 明言する／公表するs that the specialised forms of separate parts of an 有機の 存在 are always bound up with 確かな forms of other parts that 明らかに have no 関係 with them. Thus all animals that have red 血 独房s without 独房 nuclei, and in which the 長，率いる is 大（公）使館員d to the first vertebra by means of a 二塁打 articulation (condyles), also without exception 所有する lacteal （分泌する為の）腺s for suckling their young. 類似して, cloven hoofs in 哺乳動物s are 定期的に associated with the 所有／入手 of a 多重の stomach for rumination. Changes in 確かな forms 伴う／関わる changes in the form of other parts of the 団体／死体, although we cannot explain the 関係. Perfectly white cats with blue 注目する，もくろむs are always, or almost always, deaf. The 徐々に 増加するing perfection of the human 手渡す, and the 相応した adaptation of the feet for 築く gait, have undoubtedly, by virtue of such correlation, 反応するd on other parts of the organism. However, this 活動／戦闘 has not as yet been 十分に 調査／捜査するd for us to be able to do more here than to 明言する／公表する the fact in general 条件.

Much more important is the direct, demonstrable 影響（力） of the 開発 of the 手渡す on the 残り／休憩（する） of the organism. It has already been 公式文書，認めるd that our simian ancestors were gregarious; it is 明白に impossible to 捜し出す the derivation of man, the most social of all animals, from 非，不，無-gregarious 即座の ancestors. Mastery over nature began with the 開発 of the 手渡す, with 労働, and 広げるd man's horizon at every new 前進する. He was continually discovering new, hitherto unknown 所有物／資産／財産s in natural 反対するs. On the other 手渡す, the 開発 of 労働 やむを得ず helped to bring the members of society closer together by 増加するing 事例／患者s of 相互の support and 共同の activity, and by making （疑いを）晴らす the advantage of this 共同の activity to each individual. In short, men in the making arrived at the point where they had something to say to each other. Necessity created the 組織／臓器; the 未開発の larynx of the ape was slowly but surely transformed by modulation to produce 絶えず more developed modulation, and the 組織／臓器s of the mouth 徐々に learned to pronounce one articulate sound after another.

Comparison with animals 証明するs that this explanation of the origin of language from and in the 過程 of 労働 is the only 訂正する one. The little that even the most 高度に-developed animals need to communicate to each other does not 要求する articulate speech. In its natural 明言する／公表する, no animal feels handicapped by its 無（不）能 to speak or to understand human speech. It is やめる different when it has been tamed by man. The dog and the horse, by 協会 with man, have developed such a good ear for articulate speech that they easily learn to understand any language within their 範囲 of 概念. Moreover they have acquired the capacity for feelings such as affection for man, 感謝, etc., which were 以前 foreign to them. Anyone who has had much to do with such animals will hardly be able to escape the 有罪の判決 that in many 事例／患者s they now feel their 無（不）能 to speak as a defect, although, unfortunately, it is one that can no longer be 治療（薬）d because their 声の 組織／臓器s are too specialised in a 限定された direction. However, where 声の 組織／臓器s 存在する, within 確かな 限界s even this 無（不）能 disappears. The buccal 組織／臓器s of birds are as different from those of man as they can be, yet birds are the only animals that can learn to speak; and it is the bird with the most hideous 発言する／表明する, the parrot, that speaks best of all. Let no one 反対する that the parrot does not understand what it says. It is true that for the sheer 楽しみ of talking and associating with human 存在s, the parrot will chatter for hours at a stretch, continually repeating its whole vocabulary. But within the 限界s of its 範囲 of 概念s it can also learn to understand what it is 説. Teach a parrot 断言する words in such a way that it gets an idea of their meaning (one of the 広大な／多数の／重要な amusements of sailors returning from the tropics); tease it and you will soon discover that it knows how to use its 断言する words just as 正確に as a Berlin costermonger. The same is true of begging for titbits.

First 労働, after it and then with it speech - these were the two most 必須の stimuli under the 影響（力） of which the brain of the ape 徐々に changed into that of man, which'for all its similarity is far larger and more perfect. 手渡す in 手渡す with the 開発 of the brain went the 開発 of its most 即座の 器具s - the senses. Just as the 漸進的な 開発 of speech is 必然的に …を伴ってd by a corresponding refinement of the 組織／臓器 of 審理，公聴会, so the 開発 of the brain as a whole is …を伴ってd by a refinement of all the senses. The eagle sees much さらに先に than man, but the human 注目する，もくろむ discerns かなり more in things than does the 注目する，もくろむ of the eagle. The dog has a far keener sense of smell than man, but it does not distinguish a hundredth part of the odours that for man are 限定された 調印するs denoting different things. And the sense of touch, which the ape hardly 所有するs in its crudest 初期の form, has been developed only 味方する by 味方する with the 開発 of the human 手渡す itself, through the medium of 労働. -

The reaction on 労働 and speech of the 開発 of the brain and its attendant senses, of the 増加するing clarity of consciousness, 力／強力にする of abstraction and of 結論, gave both 労働 and speech an ever-新たにするd impulse to その上の 開発. This 開発 did not reach its 結論 when man finally became 際立った from the ape, but on the whole made その上の powerful 進歩, its degree and direction 変化させるing の中で different peoples and at different times, and here and there even 存在 interrupted by 地元の or 一時的な regression. This その上の 開発 has been 堅固に 勧めるd 今後, on the one 手渡す, and guided along more 限定された directions, on the other, by a new element which （機の）カム into play with the 外見 of fully-育てる／巣立つd man, すなわち, society.

Hundreds of thousands of years - of no greater significance in the history of the earth than one second in the life of man ^[1] - certainly elapsed before human society arose out of a troupe of tree-climbing monkeys. Yet it did finally appear. And what do we find once more as the characteristic difference between the troupe of monkeys and human society? 労働. The ape herd was 満足させるd to browse over the feeding area 決定するd for it by geographical 条件s or the 抵抗 of 隣人ing herds; it undertook 移住s and struggles to 勝利，勝つ new feeding grounds, but it was incapable of 抽出するing from them more than they 申し込む／申し出d in their natural 明言する／公表する, except that it unconsciously fertilised the 国／地域 with its own excrement. As soon as all possible feeding grounds were 占領するd, there could be no その上の 増加する in the ape 全住民; the number of animals could at best remain 静止している. But all animals waste a 広大な／多数の／重要な 取引，協定 of food, and, in 新規加入, destroy in the germ the next 世代 of the food 供給（する）. Unlike the hunter, the wolf does not spare the doe which would 供給する it with the young the next year; the goats in Greece, that eat away the young bushes before they grow to 成熟, have eaten 明らかにする all the mountains of the country. This "predatory economy" of animals plays an important part in the 漸進的な 変形 of 種類 by 軍隊ing them to adapt themselves to other than the usual food, thanks to which their 血 acquires a different 化学製品 composition and the whole physical 憲法 徐々に alters, while 種類 that have remained unadapted die out. There is no 疑問 that this predatory economy 与える／捧げるd powerfully to the 移行 of our ancestors from ape to man. In a race of apes that far より勝るd all others in 知能 and adaptability, this predatory economy must have led to a continual 増加する in the number of 工場／植物s used for food and the 消費 of more and more edible parts of food 工場／植物s. In short, food became more and more 変化させるd, as did also the 実体s entering the 団体／死体 with it, 実体s that were the 化学製品 前提s for the 移行 to man. But all that was not yet 労働 in the proper sense of the word. 労働 begins with the making of 道具s. And what are the most 古代の 道具s that we find - the most 古代の 裁判官ing by the heirlooms of 先史の man that have been discovered, and by the 方式 of life of the earliest historical peoples and of the rawest of 同時代の savages? They are 追跡（する）ing and fishing 器具／実施するs, the former at the same time serving as 武器s. But 追跡（する）ing and fishing presuppose the 移行 from an 排他的に vegetable diet to the concomitant use of meat, and this is another important step in the 過程 of 移行 from ape to man. A meat diet 含む／封じ込めるd in an almost ready 明言する／公表する the most 必須の 成分s 要求するd by the organism for its metabolism. By 縮めるing the time 要求するd for digestion, it also 縮めるd the other vegetative bodily 過程s that correspond to those of 工場／植物 life, and thus 伸び（る）d その上の time, 構成要素 and 願望（する） for the active manifestation of animal life proper. And the さらに先に man in the making moved from the vegetable kingdom the higher he rose above the animal. Just as becoming accustomed to a vegetable diet 味方する by 味方する with meat 変えるd wild cats and dogs into the servants of man, so also adaptation to a meat diet, 味方する by 味方する with a vegetable diet, 大いに 与える／捧げるd に向かって giving bodily strength and independence to man in the making. The meat diet, however, had its greatest 影響 on the brain, which now received a far richer flow of the 構成要素s necessary for its nourishment and 開発, and which, therefore, could develop more 速く and perfectly from 世代 to 世代. With all 予定 尊敬（する）・点 to the vegetarians man did not come into 存在 without a meat diet, and if the latter, の中で all peoples known to us, has led to cannibalism at some time or other (the forefathers of the Ber liners, the Weletabians or Wilzians, used to eat their parents as late as the tenth century), that is of no consequence to us today.

The meat diet led to two new 前進するs of 決定的な importancethe harnessing of 解雇する／砲火／射撃 and the domestication of animals. The first still その上の 縮めるd the digestive 過程, as it 供給するd the mouth with food already, as it were, half-digested; the second made meat more copious by 開始 up a new, more 正規の／正選手 source of 供給（する） in 新規加入 to 追跡（する）ing, and moreover 供給するd, in milk and its 製品s, a new article of food at least as 価値のある as meat in its composition. Thus both these 前進するs were, in themselves, new means for the emancipation of man. It would lead us too far afield to dwell here in 詳細（に述べる） on their indirect 影響s notwithstanding the 広大な／多数の／重要な importance they have had for the 開発 of man and society.

Just as man learned to 消費する everything edible, he also learned to live in any 気候. He spread over the whole of the habitable world, 存在 the only animal fully able to do so of its own （許可，名誉などを）与える. The other animals that have become accustomed to all 気候s - 国内の animals and vermin - did not become so 独立して, but only in the wake of man. And the 移行 from the uniformly hot 気候 of the 初めの home of man to colder 地域s, where the year was divided into summer and winter, created new 必要物／必要条件s - 避難所 and 着せる／賦与するing as 保護 against 冷淡な and damp, and hence new spheres of 労働, new forms of activity, which その上の and その上の separated man from the animal.

By the 連合させるd 機能（する）／行事ing of 手渡す, speech 組織／臓器s and brain, not only in each individual but also in society, men became 有能な of 遂行する／発効させるing more and more 複雑にするd 操作／手術s, and were able to 始める，決める themselves, and 達成する, higher and higher 目的（とする）s. The work of each 世代 itself became different, more perfect and more diversified. 農業 was 追加するd to 追跡（する）ing and cattle raising; then （機の）カム spinning, weaving, metalworking, pottery and 航海. Along with 貿易（する） and 産業, art and science finally appeared. Tribes developed into nations and 明言する／公表するs. 法律 and politics arose, and with them that fantastic reflection of human things in the human mind - 宗教. In the 直面する of all these images, which appeared in the first place to be 製品s of the mind and seemed to 支配する human societies, the more modest 生産／産物s of the working 手渡す 退却／保養地d into the background, the more so since the mind that planned the 労働 was able, at a very 早期に 行う／開催する／段階 in the 開発 of society (for example, already in the 原始の family), to have the 労働 that had been planned carried out by other 手渡すs than its own. All 長所 for the swift 前進する of civilisation was ascribed to the mind, to the 開発 and activity of the brain. Men became accustomed to explain their 活動／戦闘s as arising out of thought instead of their needs (which in any 事例／患者 are 反映するd and perceived in the mind); and so in the course of time there 現れるd that idealistic world 見通し which, 特に since the 落ちる of the world of antiquity, has 支配するd men's minds. It still 支配するs them to such a degree that even the most materialistic natural scientists of the Darwinian school are still unable to form any （疑いを）晴らす idea of the origin of man, because under this 観念的な 影響（力） they do not recognise the part that has been played therein by 労働.

Animals, as has already been pointed out, change the 環境 by their activities in the same way, even if not to the same extent, as man does, and these changes, as we have seen, in turn 反応する upon and change those who made them. In nature nothing takes place in 孤立／分離. Everything 影響する／感情s and is 影響する／感情d by every other thing, and it is mostly because this manifold 動議 and interaction is forgotten that our natural scientists are 妨げるd from 伸び（る）ing a （疑いを）晴らす insight into the simplest things. We have seen how goats have 妨げるd the regeneration of forests in Greece; on the island of St. Helena, goats and pigs brought by the first arrivals have 後継するd in 皆殺しにするing its old vegetation almost 完全に, and so have 用意が出来ている the ground for the spreading of 工場／植物s brought by later sailors and colonists. But animals 発揮する a 継続している 影響 on their 環境 unintentionally and, as far as the animals themselves are 関心d, accidentally. The その上の 除去するd men are from animals, however, the more their 影響 on nature assumes the character of premeditated, planned 活動／戦闘 directed に向かって 限定された preconceived ends. The animal destroys the vegetation of a locality without realising what it is doing. Man destroys it ーするために （種を）蒔く field 刈るs on the 国／地域 thus 解放（する）d, or to 工場／植物 trees or vines which he knows will 産する／生じる many times the 量 工場／植物d. He 移転s useful 工場／植物s and 国内の animals from one country to another and thus changes the flora and fauna of whole continents. More than this. Through 人工ふ化 both 工場／植物s and animals are so changed by the 手渡す of man that they become unrecognisable. The wild 工場／植物s from which our 穀物 varieties 起こる／始まるd are still 存在 sought in vain. There is still some 論争 about the wild animals from which our very different 産む／飼育するs of dogs or our 平等に 非常に／多数の 産む／飼育するs of horses are descended .

It goes without 説 that it would not occur to us to 論争 the ability of animals to 行為／法令／行動する in a planned, premeditated fashion. On the contrary, a planned 方式 of 活動／戦闘 存在するs in embryo wherever protoplasm, living albumen, 存在するs and 反応するs, that is, carries out 限定された, even if 極端に simple, movements as a result of 限定された 外部の stimuli. Such reaction takes place even where there is yet no 独房 at all, far いっそう少なく a 神経 独房. There is something of the planned 活動／戦闘 in the way insect-eating 工場／植物s 逮捕（する） their prey, although they do it やめる unconsciously. In animals the capacity for conscious, planned 活動／戦闘 is 比例する to the 開発 of the nervous system, and の中で 哺乳動物s it 達成するs a 公正に／かなり high level. While fox-追跡（する）ing in England one can daily 観察する how unerringly the fox makes use of its excellent knowledge of the locality ーするために elude its pursuers, and how 井戸／弁護士席 it knows and turns to account all favourable features of the ground that 原因（となる） the scent to be lost. の中で our 国内の animals, more 高度に developed thanks to 協会 with man, one can 絶えず 観察する 行為／法令／行動するs of cunning on 正確に／まさに the same level as those of children. For, just as the 開発 history of the human embryo in the mother's womb is only an abbreviated repetition of the history, 延長するing over millions of years, of the bodily 開発 of our animal ancestors, starting from the worm, so the mental 開発 of the human child is only a still more abbreviated repetition of the 知識人 開発 of these same ancestors, at least of the later ones. But all the planned 活動／戦闘 of all animals has never 後継するd in impressing the stamp of their will upon the earth. That was left for man.

In short, the animal 単に uses its 環境, and brings about changes in it 簡単に by its presence; man by his changes makes it serve his ends, masters it. This is the final, 必須の distinction between man and other animals, and once again it is 労働 that brings about this distinction.^[2]

Let us not, however, flatter ourselves overmuch on account of our human victories over nature. For each such victory nature takes its 復讐 on us. Each victory, it is true, in the first place brings about the results we 推定する／予想するd, but in the second and third places it has やめる different, unforeseen 影響s which only too often 取り消す the first. The people who, in Mesopotamia, Greece, Asia Minor and どこかよそで, destroyed the forests to 得る cultivable land, never dreamed that by 除去するing along with the forests the collecting centres and 貯蔵所s of moisture they were laying the basis for the 現在の forlorn 明言する／公表する of those countries. When the Italians of the アルプス山脈 used up the pine forests on the southern slopes, so carefully 心にいだくd on the northern slopes, they had no inkling that by doing so they were cutting at the roots of the 酪農場 産業 in their 地域; they had still いっそう少なく inkling that they were その為に 奪うing their mountain springs of water for the greater part of the year, and making it possible for them to 注ぐ still more furious 激流s on the plains during the 雨の seasons. Those who spread the potato in Europe were not aware that with these farinaceous tubers they were at the same time spreading scrofula. Thus at every step we are reminded that we by no means 支配する over nature like a 征服者／勝利者 over a foreign people, like someone standing outside nature - but that we, with flesh, 血 and brain, belong to nature, and 存在する in its 中央, and that all our mastery of it consists in the fact that we have the advantage over all other creatures of 存在 able to learn its 法律s and 適用する them 正確に.

And, in fact, with every day that passes we are acquiring a better understanding of these 法律s and getting to perceive both the more 即座の and the more remote consequences of our 干渉，妨害 with the 伝統的な course of nature. In particular, after the mighty 前進するs made by the 自然科学s in the 現在の century, we are more than ever in a position to realise, and hence to 支配（する）／統制する, also the more remote natural consequences of at least our day-to-day 生産／産物 activities. But the more this 進歩s the more will men not only feel but also know their oneness with nature, and the more impossible will become the senseless and unnatural idea of a contrast between mind and 事柄, man and nature, soul and 団体／死体, such as arose after the 拒絶する／低下する of classical antiquity in Europe and 得るd its highest elaboration in Christianity.

It 要求するd the 労働 of thousands of years for us to learn a little of how to calculate the more remote natural 影響s of our 活動／戦闘s in the field of 生産／産物, but it has been still more difficult in regard to the more remote social 影響s of these 活動／戦闘s. We について言及するd the potato and the resulting spread of scrofula. But what is scrofula compared to the 影響s which the 削減 of the 労働者s to a potato diet had on the living 条件s of the popular 集まりs in whole countries, or compared to the 飢饉 the potato blight brought to Ireland in 1847, which consigned to the 墓／厳粛／彫る／重大な a million Irishmen, nourished 単独で or almost 排他的に on potatoes, and 軍隊d the 移住 overseas of two million more? When the Arabs learned to distil spirits, it never entered their 長，率いるs that by so doing they were creating one of the 長，指導者 武器s for the annihilation of the aborigines of the then still undiscovered American continent. And when afterwards Columbus discovered this America, he did not know that by doing so he was giving a new 賃貸し（する） of life to slavery, which in Europe had long ago been done away with, and laying the basis for the Negro slave 貿易（する）. The men who in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 労働d to create the steam-engine had no idea that they were 準備するing the 器具 which more than any other was to revolutionise social relations throughout the world. 特に in Europe, by concentrating wealth in the 手渡すs of a 少数，小数派 and dispossessing the 抱擁する 大多数, this 器具 was 運命にあるd at first to give social and political 支配 to the bourgeoisie, but later, to give rise to a class struggle between bourgeoisie and proletariat which can end only in the 倒す of the bourgeoisie and the 廃止 of all class antagonisms. But in this sphere too, by long and often cruel experience and by collecting and analysing historical 構成要素, we are 徐々に learning to get a （疑いを）晴らす 見解（をとる） of the indirect, more remote social 影響s of our 生産／産物 activity, and so are afforded an 適切な時期 to 支配（する）／統制する and 規制する these 影響s 同様に.

This 規則, however, 要求するs something more than mere knowledge. It 要求するs a 完全にする 革命 in our hitherto 存在するing 方式 of 生産／産物, and 同時に a 革命 in our whole 同時代の social order.

All hitherto 存在するing 方式s of 生産／産物 have 目的（とする）d 単に at 達成するing the most すぐに and 直接／まっすぐに useful 影響 of 労働. The その上の consequences, which appear only later and become 効果的な through 漸進的な repetition and accumulation, were 全く neglected. The 初めの ありふれた 所有権 of land corresponded, on the one 手渡す, to a level of 開発 of human 存在s in which their horizon was 制限するd in general to what lay すぐに 利用できる, and presupposed, on the other 手渡す, a 確かな superfluity of land that would 許す some latitude for 訂正するing the possible bad results of this primeval type of economy. When this 黒字／過剰 land was exhausted, ありふれた 所有権 also 拒絶する／低下するd. All higher forms of 生産／産物, however, led to the 分割 of the 全住民 into different classes and その為に to the antagonism of 判決，裁定 and 抑圧するd classes. Thus the 利益／興味s of the 判決，裁定 class became the 運動ing factor of 生産／産物, since 生産／産物 was no longer 制限するd to 供給するing the barest means of subsistence for the 抑圧するd people. This has been put into 影響 most 完全に in the 資本主義者 方式 of 生産／産物 勝つ／広く一帯に広がるing today in Western Europe. The individual 資本主義者s, who 支配する 生産／産物 and 交流, are able to 関心 themselves only with the most 即座の useful 影響 of their 活動／戦闘s. Indeed, even this useful 影響 - inasmuch as it is a question of the usefulness of the article that is produced or 交流d - 退却／保養地s far into the background, and the 単独の incentive becomes the 利益（をあげる） to be made on selling.

Classical political economy, the social science of the bourgeoisie, in the main 診察するs only social 影響s of human 活動／戦闘s in the fields of 生産／産物 and 交流 that are 現実に ーするつもりであるd. This fully corresponds to the social organisation of which it is the theoretical 表現. As individual 資本主義者s are engaged in 生産／産物 and 交流 for the sake of the 即座の 利益（をあげる）, only the nearest, most 即座の results must first be taken into account. As long as the individual 製造業者 or merchant sells a 製造（する）d or 購入（する）d 商品／必需品 with the usual coveted 利益（をあげる）, he is 満足させるd and does not 関心 himself with what afterwards becomes of the 商品／必需品 and its purchasers. The same thing 適用するs to the natural 影響s of the same 活動／戦闘s. What cared the Spanish planters in Cuba, who 燃やすd 負かす／撃墜する forests on the slopes of the mountains and 得るd from the ashes 十分な fertiliser for one 世代 of very 高度に profitable coffee trees-what cared they that the 激しい 熱帯の 降雨 afterwards washed away the unprotected upper stratum of the 国／地域, leaving behind only 明らかにする 激しく揺する! In relation to nature, as to society, the 現在の 方式 of 生産／産物 is predominantly 関心d only about the 即座の, the most 有形の result; and then surprise is 表明するd that the more remote 影響s of 活動／戦闘s directed to this end turn out to be やめる different, are mostly やめる the opposite in character; that the harmony of 供給（する） and 需要・要求する is transformed into the very 逆転する opposite, as shown by the course of each ten years' 産業の cycle - even Germany has had a little 予選 experience of it in the "衝突，墜落";^[3] that 私的な 所有権 based on one's own 労働 must of necessity develop into the expropriation of the 労働者s, while all wealth becomes more and more concentrated in the 手渡すs of 非，不，無-労働者s; that ^[4]

公式文書，認めるs:

1. A 主要な 当局 in this 尊敬（する）・点, Sir William Thomson, has calculated that little more than a hundred million years could have elapsed since the time when the earth had 冷静な／正味のd 十分に for 工場／植物s and animals to be able to live on it. [Go 支援する]

2. Written in the 利ざや: "Veredlung" - refinement (editor's 公式文書，認める). [Go 支援する]

3. The 経済的な 危機 in 1873-74 (editor's 公式文書，認める). [Go 支援する]

4. The manuscript ends here. This text was ーするつもりであるd as a preface to a larger work, "Über die drei Grundformen der Knechtschaft" (On the Three Basic Forms of Slavery). It was written in 1876 but not published until a year after Engels' death, printed in the "Neuen Zeit" in 1896. (editor's 公式文書，認める). [Go 支援する]